Table 1.
Summary of the current worldwide occurrence of Phalaris spp. with resistance mechanisms to different herbicide groups.
| Phalaris Species | Country | First Report | Type of Resistance | Mode of Action | Resistance Mechanism | References | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ALS 1 | PSII 2 | APP 3 | CHD 4 | PPZ 5 | ||||||
| P. minor | Mexico | 1996 | - | - | R | R | R | ACCase inhibitors | Ile-1781-Leu Asp-2078-Gly Ile-2041-Asn Trp-2027-Cys |
[35] |
| South Africa | 1999 | R | - | R | - | - | Multiple Resistance: ACCase inhibitors ALS inhibitors |
NE | [36] | |
| India | 1991 | - | R | - | - | - | PSII inhibitor (Ureas and amides) |
Metabolism | [8,37,38,39] | |
| 1994 | - | - | R | R | r | ACCase inhibitors | Trp-2027-Cys Ile-2041-Asn |
[40,41] | ||
| 2006 | r | r | R | R | - | Multiple Resistance: ACCase inhibitors, ALS inhibitors, PSII inhibitor | NE | [42] | ||
| 2013 | R | - | - | - | - | ALS inhibitors | NE | [43] | ||
| United States | 2001 | - | - | R | R | - | ACCase inhibitors | NE | - | |
| Israel | 1993 | - | - | R | r | - | ACCase inhibitors | NE | [44] | |
| Australia | 2012 | - | - | R | - | - | ACCase inhibitors | NE | - | |
| Iran | 2004 | - | - | R | R | S/R | ACCase inhibitors | Trp-2027-Cys Asp-2078-Gly Ile-1781-Leu |
[45] | |
| Pakistan | 2015 | - | - | R | - | - | ACCase inhibitors | NE | [46] | |
| P. paradoxa | Australia |
1997 | - | - | R | R | - | ACCase inhibitors | NE | - |
| 2012 | R | - | R | - | - | Multiple Resistance: ACCase inhibitors ALS inhibitors |
NE | - | ||
| Iran | 2007 | - | - | R | R | R | ACCase inhibitors | NE | - | |
| Israel | 1979 | - | R | - | - | - | Photosystem II inhibitors (atrazine) | Ser-264-Gly | [47,48] | |
| 2004 | - | - | R | R | r | ACCase inhibitors | Asp-2078-Gly Ile-2041-Asn |
[49] | ||
| Italy | 1998 | - | - | R | R | R | ACCase inhibitors | Ile-1781-Val Asp-2078-Gly |
[50] | |
| Mexico | 1996 | - | - | R | R | R | ACCase inhibitors | Gly-2096-Ser | [51] | |
| Syria | 2015 | - | - | R | - | - | ACCase inhibitors | NE | - | |
| P. brachystachys | Italy | 2001 | - | - | R | R | R | ACCase inhibitors | NE | - |
| Turkey | 2008 | R | - | R | - | - | Multiple Resistance: ACCase inhibitors ALS inhibitors |
NE | - | |
| Iran | 2014 | - | - | R | R | r | ACCase inhibitors | Ile-1781-Thr Metabolism |
[52] | |
| Syria | 2015 | - | - | R | - | - | ACCase inhibitors | NE | - | |
1 Acetolactate synthase, 2 photosystem II, 3 APP: aryloxyphenoxypropionate, 4 CHD: cyclohexanedione, 5 PPZ: phenylpyrazoline, R: resistant, S: susceptible, r: moderately resistant, and NE: not examined.