Table 4.

Changes in parent–child interactions associated with parent stressors due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

	Changes in Negative Parent–Child Interactions
Parent Stressors	Disciplining My Child(ren)			Conflicts with My Child(ren)			Using Harsh Words with My Child(ren)			Yelling/Shouting at My Child(ren)
	OR	95% CI		OR	95% CI		OR	95% CI		OR	95% CI
Financial concerns	1.67	1.24	2.27	1.48	1.15	1.91	1.69	1.20	2.39	1.20	0.90	1.61
Experiencing relationship challenges with my partner	2.63	1.93	3.57	2.48	1.90	3.24	3.08	2.18	4.34	2.75	2.04	3.71
Looking after children while continuing to work	3.35	2.46	4.57	2.21	1.71	2.86	2.19	1.56	3.08	2.68	2.00	3.60
	Changes in Positive Parent–Child Interactions
	Having More Quality Time with My Child(ren)			Feeling Closeness with My Child(ren)			Showing Love or Affection to My Child(ren)			Observing Resilience (Strength and Perseverance) in My Child(ren)
	OR	95% CI		OR	95% CI		OR	95% CI		OR	95% CI
Financial concerns	1.65	1.33	2.04	1.52	1.24	1.87	1.71	1.39	2.10	1.38	1.11	1.71
Experiencing relationship challenges with my partner	1.15	0.90	1.46	1.08	0.86	1.36	1.46	1.16	1.84	1.20	0.95	1.53
Looking after children while continuing to work	2.28	1.82	2.86	2.07	1.67	2.55	2.09	1.69	2.58	2.03	1.64	2.53

Each stressor adjusted for parent age, gender, pre-existing mental health condition, disability, and study round. Bold indicates statistically significant associations.