Table 2.
Potential of yeast and mushroom glucans for the prevention, course, and complications of COVID-19.
| No. | Type of Glucan | Mechanism of Action in Prevention and Treatment of COVID-19 | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1. | AFO-202-β–glucan (β-1,3-1,6 glucan from black yeast Aureobasidium pullulans) |
Potential as a vaccine adjuvant against COVID-19; Prevention of COVID-19-associated coagulopathy. |
[179] |
| 2. | AFO-202 -β-glucans (β-1,3-1,6 glucan from black yeast Aureobasidium pullulans) |
Regulation of blood glucose and lipid levels by β-Glucans as an indispensable tool of defense against COVID-19. | [180,181] |
| 3. | AFO-202-β–glucan (β-1,3-1,6 glucan from black yeast Aureobasidium pullulans) |
Immune enhancement by decreasing hyper-inflammation factors (IL-6) and minimizing the likelihood of a cytokine storm; increasing IFN-γ, sFAS, and factors like IL-7; and enhancing anti-viral cytotoxic immunity, (T cells, NK cells, macrophages, antibody production by B cells). |
[168] |
| 4. | AFO-202-β–glucan (β-1,3-1,6 glucan from black yeast Aureobasidium pullulans) |
Immune regulatory and enhancing immune system; Immune stimulator that can activate macrophages and have positive immune actions on B-lymphocytes, natural killer cells, and suppressor T cells in the immune system. |
[168,182] |
| 5. | 1,3-β-D-glucan (from Saccharomyces cerevisiae) | Prevention and treatment of excessive microglia activation during chronic inflammation characteristic of COVID-19 course. | [183,184] |
| 6. | 1,3-β-D-glucan (curdlan and fragmentated zymozan- proteoglucan from Saccharomyces cerevisiae) |
Potentials to enhance microglial function and regeneration of CNS axons in COVID-19 neurological sequalae. |
[184,185] |
| 7. | 1,3-1,6-β-D glucans (from shiitake mushroom Lentinula edodes) |
Immunomodulatory and pulmonary cytoprotective effects. | [14] |
| 8. | β-glucans (from mushrooms as Lentinula edodes and Pleurotus ostreatus) | Immunomodulating effects. | [170] |
| 9. | β-glucan (from white button mushroom Agaricus bisporus) |
Interrupts AR (androgen receptor)-mediated TMPRSS2 (Transmembrane protease serine 2) expression that is involved in viral entry, through its AR antagonistic activity; Attenuates serum pro-inflammatory cytokines and reduces MDSC (myeloid-derived suppressor cells) counts that are involved in the host response to viral infection, through its immunoregulatory activity). |
[175] |
| 10. | 1,4-α–glucan (from Lentinula edodes) |
Modulation and activation of NK-cells, T-cells, and γδ-T (gamma delta T). |
[186] |
| 11. | β-glucans (from edible and medicinal mushrooms) |
Support the immune system before, during, and after COVID-19. | [187] |
| 12. | Aminated β-glucan (AβG) | Potential vaccine adjuvant, immunopotentiator for simulation of antigen-presenting cells for T cells’ activation. | [188,189,190] |
| 13. | β-glucan (from yeast, Saccharomysces cerevisiae) |
Decreasing platelet activation by increasing TGF-β1 production. Decreasing the concentration of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-6, which indirectly activates platelets and thrombin production. Prevention of thrombosis during the course of COVID-19. |
[169,177,191] |