Table 1.

Examples of national response interventions in countries with low, high, and middle level covid-19 death rates

Domain	Lowest death rates (country population >20 million)	Highest death rates (country population >20 million)	Middle level death rates
Border controls	Uganda: Borders closed on 21 March 2020, except for cargo transport and import of essential goods	Spain: Land borders (later extended to include airports and ports of call) closed except for returning residents and Spanish citizens took effect on 16 March 2020	Egypt: All flights in and out of the country were stopped, effective 19 March 2020
	Vietnam: Following the progressive closure of borders to various high risk countries since January, borders were completely closed to foreigners, effective 22 March 2020	Argentina: Suspension of flights from certain high risk countries implemented on 12 March 2020, followed by a 15 day ban on entry of non-resident foreigners, effective 16 March 2020	Singapore: Travel ban from Hubei province was introduced on 28 January 2020, which was later expanded to include the entire mainland China on 1 February 2020, Daegu and Cheongdo, South Korea, on 26 February 2020, before expanding to other high risk countries on 15 March 2020
Physical distancing measures	Mozambique: No lockdown measures were formally implemented during the first few months of the pandemic, but bans on gatherings and other public activities were introduced on 1 April 2020	Peru: Compulsory social isolation measures introduced on 16 March 2020 to limit the spread of the disease for 15 days, which was later expanded to last until 12 April 2020	India: Total lockdown for the entire country effective on 25 March 2020, following a voluntary shutdown two days before that
	China: Lockdown in Wuhan, following which the CDC released guidelines for the public to prevent transmission of covid-19, including not leaving the house, cancelling social visits, and avoiding enclosed public spaces and large gatherings	United States: No centralised enforcement of stay at home orders, but by late April 2020, most states or territories had introduced stay at home orders or advisories	Nigeria: Lockdowns for some areas of the country, including Lagos, were introduced on 26 March 2020. Nationwide curfew from 8 pm to 6 am was implemented on 2 May 2020
Workplace measures	Mozambique: Preventive measures must be in place in all workplaces, including reduced staffing in face to face environments, sanitising, frequent handwashing, and maintaining an interpersonal distance of 1.5 m	Argentina: The government designated covid-19 as an occupational hazard, allowing for essential workers to be compensated if they were infected	Russia: Remote workplace measures mandating that at least 30% of employees, people over 65, or those with chronic conditions work remotely
	Niger: Various measures implemented in the public administration sector, including cancellation of internships, suspension of use of lifts, and restriction on working hours from 8 am to 2 pm, between March and May 2020	Peru: Closure of all but essential workplaces (which include pharmacies, grocery stores, and banking institutes) between 26 March 2020 and 12 April 2020	Sweden: The government encouraged people to work from home as much as possible, while workplaces were advised to consider minimising activities that might present a risk for transmission of covid-19
Social support	Uganda: Food relief distributed to some 1.5 million people considered urban poor who were affected by the lockdown, receiving rations of several kilos of maize flour, sugar, powdered milk, beans, and salt	Argentina: The government introduced price limits for certain products, such as hand sanitiser, staple foods, and other products, for 30 days, effective 20 March 2020 .	Uruguay: Food support assistance, such as food baskets, were introduced to help deal with food insecurity
	Sri Lanka: Price caps were set for essential food items, such as rice, to support food security. A task force to monitor the delivery of services to rural areas was also set up	United States: Support from the federal government for rural and indigenous communities and subnational players by providing grants and implementing programmes targeted at vulnerable populations, such as communities of colour and migrants	Fiji: Government encouragement for households and farmers to take part in agricultural activities, with the establishment of the home gardening programme to help support food needs
Economic support	China: Flexibility on debt repayment and waivers for late penalties on various debt repayment types, as well as interest subsidies for new loans	United States: $1200 stimulus cheque provided to people with an income under $99 000, as well as various measures like a paycheck protection programme, small business loans, and other financial relief, such as mortgage deferrals	New Zealand: Wage subsidy programmes for various sectors, as well as small business loans and debt repayment deferrals
	Thailand: Relief measures provided to migrants, farmers, workers, and entrepreneurs. Stimulus package introduced to mitigate negative economic effects of the crisis	Spain: Suspension of mortgage payments for struggling individuals, as well as a series of funding measures and a minimum income scheme	Germany: Deferral of tax payments, income supports, and small business loans
Pharmaceutical interventions	China: By late 2020, four vaccines had entered phase III trials; vaccines included Sinopharm-BBIP, Coronavac, and Covidecia	Spain: Agency for Medicines and Medical Products (AEMPS) authorised 32 clinical trials on covid-19 treatments, registering more than 26 000 patients	Germany: In October 2020, the federal government released a two phase vaccine rollout strategy prioritising vulnerable populations and health workers
	Thailand: Several vaccines in development, including a plant based technology vaccine preparing for phase I trials in humans in late 2020	United States: Government agreements with AstraZeneca, Moderna, and Johnson and Johnson, respectively, include investments in manufacturing capabilities	Russia: By late 2020, the Gam-COVID-Vac (Sputnik V) vaccine was in phase III trials

CDC=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.