Table 1.
The toxicity of GFNs in vivo and in vitro.
| Products | Supplier or Synthesis Methods | Dose | Animal or Cell Models | Toxicological Mechanisms | Adverse Effects | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| graphene nanoplatelets | cheaptubes.com (Brattleboro, VT, USA) | 0.3, 1 mg/rat | rat | oxidative stress, inflammation | lung inflammation | [55] |
| commercial GO and rGO | Nanjing XFNANO Materials Tech Co., Ltd., (China) | 2.0 mg/kg body weight | rat | transcriptional and epigenetic | liver zonated accumulation | [56] |
| amination GQDs carboxylated GQDs hydroxylated GQDs |
Nanjing XFNANO Materials Tech Co., Ltd., (China) | 100, 200 μg/mL | A549 cells | autophagy | cytotoxicity | [57] |
| GO and rGO oxidated from carbon nanofibers | Grupo Antolin (Spain) |
0.1, 1.0, 10, 50 mg/L | erythrocyte cell | oxidative stress | genotoxicity | [58] |
| GO nanosheets | Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA) | 40, 60, 80 mg/L | Human SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cell | oxidative stress, autophagy–lysosomal network dysfunction | cytotoxicity | [59] |
| pristine rGO | Chengdu Organic Chemicals Co., Ltd., the Chinese Academy of Sciences | 1–100 mg/L | Earthworm coelomocytes | oxidative stress | immunotoxicity | [60] |
| single layer GO (product no. GNOP10A5) |
ACS Materials LLC (Medford, MA, USA) | 1, 10, 50, 150, 250, 500 mg/L | Escherichia coli | physical destruction | toxicity against bacteria | [61] |
| GO | modified Hummers method | 25 mg/L | THP-1 and BEAS-2B cells | lipid peroxidation, membrane adsorption, membrane damage | cytotoxicity | [62] |
| GO | modified Hummers method | 2 mg/kg | rat | lipid peroxidation, membrane adsorption, membrane damage | acute lung inflammation | [62] |
| GO | Nanjing XFNANO Materials Tech Co., Ltd., (China) | 0–100 mg/L | zebrafish embryos | oxidative stress | developmental toxicity | [63] |
| GO | modified Hummers method | 10 mg/L | Caenorhabditis elegans | oxidative stress | toxicity | [64] |
| graphene, GO |
modified Hummers method | 3.125–200 mg/L | human erythrocytes and skin fibroblasts | oxidative stress | cytotoxicity | [65] |
| graphene exfoliated form graphite, GO oxidated from carbon fibers |
Grupo Antolin Ingeniería (Burgos, Spain) | 1, 10 mg/L | primary neurons | inhibition of synaptic transmission, altered calcium homeostasis | neurotoxicity | [66] |