Table 1.

Use of oat/oat products and their health beneficial properties.

Beneficial Properties	Effect	References
Cardiovascular diseases	-Significant reduction on total cholesterol/LDL cholesterol/HDL cholesterol.	[22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29]
	-Cholesterol uptake by everted jejunal sacs inhibited by an increase in concentration of oat gum in mucosal mediums.	[30]
	-Fecal bile acids concentration significantly increased.	[26,31]
	-Significant decrease in serum cholesterol and cholic acid pool size. -Significant increase in deoxycholic acid pool size. -Significant increase in synthesis and fractional turnover rates of both primary bile acids. -No change in total bile acid pool size.	[32,33,34]
	-No significant effect of oat gum on serum total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, and triglyceride concentrations showing the weak cholesterol-lowering capacity of oat gum, thereby suggesting that cholesterol-lowering is due to the solubility and viscosity of OBG and not to the concentration/amount.	[35]
	-Significant reduction in serum and liver cholesterol level with the consumption of high fiber oat flour containing 0–10% dietary fiber in hypercholesterolemic rats.	[25]
	-Increase in excretion of dry matter, fat, nitrogen, energy, and total bile acids; reduction in LDL and total cholesterol but no change in HDL cholesterol or lipo-proteins.	[36]
	-Significant reduction of serum cholesterol, peripheral serum SCFA levels increased.	[37]
	-Both total and LDL cholesterol decreased. -Activated cholesterol sensors LXRα and enhanced hepatic and intestinal cholesterol absorption.	[38]
Type II Diabetes	-Significant reduction of blood glucose and glycosylated serum proteins.	[39,40,41,42]
	-Reduction of postprandial plasma glucose and insulin concentrations.	[43]
	-Significant correlation between peak blood glucose and the product of extractable beta-glucan content and its MW.	[44]
	-Significant lower mean glycemic response and lower insulin response area (area under the curve) with oat bran concentrate bread. -The area under the curve for glucose and insulin was significantly lower, and the insulin peak was reached earlier with oat bran concentrate bread.	[42]
	-No significant difference in glycemic response fed with muesli with 3 g OBG, while a significant lowering of glycemic and insulin response was found with muesli with 4 g OBG compared to the referenced meal.	[45]
	-Reduction of viscosity of oat gum by acid hydrolysis decreased the postprandial glucose and insulin levels; oat gum’s ability to lower glycemic response was unchanged with the addition of maltodextrin.	[46]
Obesity	-Oatmeal suppressed appetite, increased satiety, and reduced energy intake.	[47]
	-Reduction of body weight, body fat, Body Mass Index (BMI), and waist to hip ratio.	[48,49]
	-Each oat product decreased body weight, epididymis fat accumulation, and serum lipid levels; improved metabolic disorder by enhancing gut microbial growth.	[50]
	-Effective reduction in body weight and fat and food efficiency but not appetite; reduction of serum glucose, free fatty acid, triacylglycerol (TG), total cholesterol, LDL, and HDL cholesterol; effectively reduced hepatic TG and cholesterol.	[51]
	-Diets with OBG significantly reduced the body weight of mice; the MW of OBG did not significantly affect the serum lipid profile.	[52]
Celiac Disease	-Patients on remission or newly diagnosed with celiac disease did not have worsening effects on duodenal villi or increased mononuclear cell infiltration.	[53]
	-Significant decrease in biopsy score, intraepithelial lymphocyte count, anti-tissue transglutaminase IgA antibody titer, and number of symptoms.	[54]
	-Consumption did not result in small-bowel mucosal villous damage, inflammation, or gastrointestinal symptoms.	[55]
	-All patients remained asymptomatic with normal levels of hematological and biochemical indices. -No change in endomysial and gliadin antibody values. -A standard histological evaluation showed no morphological damage. -No significant change in the quantitative histological examination.	[56]
	-A large consumption of oat products (100–160 g daily for a long time) may also contribute to the development of celiac disease.	[57]
Cancer	-Low MW OBG significantly decreased cancer cells’ viability, non-toxic for normal cells. -Showed a strong expression of caspase-12 in cancer cell lines.	[58]
	-OBG was cytotoxic and induced oxidative stress in cancer cells. -Human erythrocytes treated with OBG were less susceptible to hemolysis in a hypotonic solution.	[59]
	-The bile acid content was significantly reduced and the SCFA content was enhanced in both MW of OBG-administered mice; tumor cells apoptosis was significantly promoted.	[60]
	-Avenanthramide had no effect on cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression but inhibited COX enzyme activity and prostaglandin E2 production. -Significantly inhibited the cell proliferation of both COX-2-positive HT29, Caco-2, LS174T, and COX-2 negative HCT116 human colon cancer cell lines. -Had no effect on COX-2 expression and PGE2 production in Caco-2 and HT29 colon cancer cells.	[61]
	-Inhibitory effect of both Avenacoside A and B on human colon cancer cells HCT-116 and HT-29; Avenacoside B was more active than avenacoside A.	[20]
Immunomodulation	-In vitro stimulation of OBG resulted in the production of interleukin-1 (IL-1) in a dose- and time-dependent manner and only small amounts of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α). -Induced the production of IL-2, IFN-Y, and IL-4 in a dose-dependent manner in cultured spleen cells. -Survival of mice from staphylococcus aureus enhanced by intraperitoneal administration of 500 µg of OBG 3 days before bacterial exposure.	[62]
	-Parenteral administration of OBG resulted in a high level of total serum immunoglobulins and antigen-specific immunoglobulins. -Proliferative response to E. vermiformis significantly increased when OBG was provided 2 days before or at the time of infection.	[63]
	-Induced cytokines in bone-marrow-derived dendritic cells influencing immunomodulatory properties.	[64]
	-Digestion of OBG with endo-glucanase stimulated MCP-1, RANTES, IL-8, and IL-4 production in human dendritic cells, which resulted in the activation of receptor dectin-1.	[65]
	-Increased intestinal nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) in leukocytes and enterocytes in the ileum but not in the colon of mice. -Level of interleukin-12 (IL-12) increased in intestinal lysates, whereas the concentration of interferon-Y decreased. -Tumor necrosis factor α showed reduced production in the colon.	[66]
	-Resistance of macrophage to Herpes Simplex Virus-1 increased with both exercise and OBG on the mouse model. Mortality also decreased.	[67]
	-OBG-enriched fecal water significantly increased IL-8 production in HT29 and INT407 cells. -Intercellular adhesion molecule (ICAM)-1 expression increased in T84 and caco-2 cells. -Antibody array showed an enhancement of inflammatory expression profiles.	[68]
Antioxidant activity	-Diet with high MW OBG decreased lipid superoxides, 7-ketosterol concentration, and GSSG activity in spleen.	[69]
	-Significant reduction of different type blood leucocytes -Higher reduction of lipid peroxidation observed with high MW OBG and low MW OBG led to a reduction in the enteritis group.	[70]
	-The elimination kinetics of plasma AVA followed first-order kinetics. -Bioavailability of AVA-A increased. -With the consumption of 1 g AVA enriched mixture, plasma reduced glutathione was increased.	[16]
	-Under the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) system, N-(3′,4′-dihydroxycinnamoyl)-5-hydroxyanthranilic acid (Bc) and N-(4′-hydroxy-3′-methoxycinnamoyl)-5-hydroxyanthranilic acid (Bf) were more active. -Bc had a higher activity than N-(4′-hydroxycinnamoyl)-5-hydroxyanthranilic acid (Bp) and Bf; Bc was as active as a standard synthetic antioxidant in the β-carotene system.	[71]
	-N-acetylcysteine attenuated AVA induced HO-1 (heme oxygenase-1), showing the role of reactive oxygen species; the hydrogenation of the double bond of the functional αβ-unsaturated carbonyl group of AVA removed their effects on HO-1 expression, which suggests that this group is essential for the antioxidant activity.	[72]
	-Decrease in malondialdehyde value, increase in activities of superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase. -Hepatic damage induced by 60Co γ-irradiation was ameliorated in aged mice.	[73]
	-Significant increase in the level of Superoxide dismutase (SOD) and reduced glutathione hormone (GSH). -Significant decrease in malondialdehyde level.	[74]
Gut Health	-Significant increase in C. histolyticum subgroup in all vessels, and clostridial cluster IX maintained high populations with all fractions; propionate rich SCFA was observed.	[75]
	-Fermentation rate of oat was lower than that of wheat and rye bran. -Enzymatic digestion before in vitro colon fermentation retarded the ferment ability of oat samples. -Highest production of propionate from oats compared to wheat and rye.	[76]
	-Significant influence on fecal water content, pH value, ammonia levels, β-glucuronidase activity, azoreductase activity, and colonic SCFA concentrations. -Number of Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium increased, but Enterobacteriaceae decreased in a dose-dependent manner.	[77]
	-Significant increase in the concentration of acetic, propionic, butyric, isobutyric, and isovaleric acid, but decrease in lactic acid.	[78]
	-Significant changes in total bacterial population after 24-h incubation, except for small flakes. -Small flakes had a significant increase in the Bacteroides-Prevotella group. -Large flakes significantly increased Bifidobacterium and also resulted in propionate rich SCFA with a significant increase in butyrate.	[79]
	-Reduction in body weight, epididymal fat accumulation, serum inflammatory factor levels, and regulated serum lipid levels. -Shifted the overall structure of microbiota in obese rats- Abundance of Bacteroides and Firmicutes and their ratio altered toward normal rats and significantly increased SCFA concentration in colonic digestion.	[50]
	-Significant increase in acetate, propionate, butyrate, and total SCFA concentrations in hamsters fed with OF compared to placebo.	[80]
	-Abundance of Prevotella, Butyricicoccus, and Catenibacterium was higher, while Coprococcus and Desulfovibrio were lower in oat bran-based diet.	[81]
	-Significant increase of Proteobacteria at 10 h, Bacteroidetes at 24 h, and concentration of acetic and propionic acid increased at 10 h and 24 h compared to control diet; 1% oat bran fermentation resulted in an increase in SCFA production at 24 h. -Relative abundance of Bifidobacterium unassigned at 10 h and Bifidobacterium adolescentis at 10 and 24 h compared to control diet.	[82]
	-Reduction in fecal levels of β-galactosidase and urease, whereas colonic fermentation capacity, excretion of SCFA, and rectal inflammation assessed through PGE2 levels were not changed.	[83]
	-Relative abundance of Bacteroidaceae, Bifidobacteriaceae, Lactobacillaceae, Prevotellaceae, Ruminococcaceae, and Veillonellaceae increased, and Enterobacteriaceae decreased. -Increased production of SCFA with higher concentration of acetate.	[84]
	-Relative abundance of Prevotellaceae, Lactobacillaceae, and Alcaligenaceae families in whole grain oat flour was higher, and the Clostridiaceae and Lachnospiraceae families were higher in low bran oat flour.	[85]
	-8 different metabolites found in 2C treated mouse urine samples. -2C was converted into 5-hydroxyanthranilic acid (M1), dihydrocaffeic acid (M2), caffeic acid, and M6 (dihydroavenanthramide-C); it also showed that 2C and its major metabolite M6 act against human colon cancer cells.	[86]
Inflammation	-Significant reduction of different types of blood leucocytes (lymphocytes T and B, granulocytes, and lymphocytes Tc) in rats with dietary high and low MW OBG.	[87]
	-Supplementation with OBG following LPS treatment reversed its effects; improvement in SCFA concentration. -Increase in the number of lactic acid bacteria.	[69]
	-High MW OBG decreased the tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) in both experimental groups, while low MW OBG decreased the concentration of interleukin-10 (IL-10) in the gastritis group.	[70]
	-Significant reduction in clinical symptoms like less weight loss, diarrhea, and shortening of the colon. -Severity of colitis was significantly inhibited. -Decreased myeloperoxidase activity, nitric oxide, and malondialdehyde. -Inhibited mRNA and protein expression of pro-inflammatory factors like TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and iNOS.	[88]
	-Oat proteins for 19 days reduced eccentric-exercise-induced skeletal muscle soreness, IL-6 concentration levels, myoglobin, and C reactive protein contents.	[89]
	-Significant increase in resting plasma glutathione (GSH) concentration, decreased glutathione disulfide response to downhill run, and lowered erythrocyte GSH peroxidase activity.	[90]
	-Decrease in downhill-walking-induced neutrophil respiratory burst at 24 h and C-reactive proteins level at 48 h. -Plasma interleukin (IL)-1β and mononuclear cell nuclear factor binding were suppressed in the AVA group. -Erythrocyte superoxide dismutase activity increased.	[91]
	-Reduction of IκB 4 β (IKKβ) kinase activity in response to (tBHP) stimulation and suppressed tBHP-induced TNFα and IL-1β mRNA expression. -Increase in cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) proteins and luciferase activity with tBHP treatment reduced by 50%.	[92]
	-Inhibition of immunoglobulin (Ig)E-stimulated mast cells degranulation through suppression of phosphorylation of phosphoinositide 3-kinase and phospholipase Cγ1 and by decreasing calcium levels. -Inhibition of inflammatory cytokines secretion by suppressing signaling proteins Lyn, Syk, Akt, and nuclear factor-κB.	[93]
Atherosclerosis	-Reduction of atherosclerotic lesion with intake of atorvastatin and oat bran simultaneously.	[94]
	-High-fat-diet-induced atheroma lesions in aortic valve were reduced by both types of oat-based diets, but high fat containing regular oat brans with high levels of AVAs diet was more effective compared to high fat containing regular oat brans with low levels of AVAs diet.	[95]
	-Reduction of plasma cholesterol. -Lowered plasma triglycerides and increased fecal excretion of cholesterol and bile acids. -Reduced atherosclerotic lesion area in the descending aorta and aortic root. -Significant reduction of plasma levels of fibrinogen and soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule-1.	[96]
	-OBG treated groups had minimal clinical signs and no mortality compared to immunosuppressed mice. -Total IgG, IgG1, IgG2A, IgM, and IgA; specific IgG anti-sporotize and merozoite immunoglobulins in serum were significantly higher. -IFN-y- and IL-4-secreting cells were detected in spleen and mesenteric lymph nodes.	[97]
Antimicrobial	-Significant protection against S. aureus and reduction in fecal oocyst shedding infected with E. vermiformis. -Patency period was shorter and antigen-specific antibodies were significantly higher. -Number of IFN-y-secreting cells in the spleen increased. -Effective changes in the lymphocytes population in the mesenteric lymph nodes and Peyer’s patches in mice infected with E. vermiformis. -In vitro study showed an enhancement in phagocytic activity by OBG.	[98]
	-Oat brans pre-treated with viscozyme and cellulase inhibited the growth of E. coli. -Viscozyme and alpha amylase treated brans supported the growth of Bacillus subtilis, which is used as a pro-biotic bacterium.	[99]
	-Significant reduction of wrinkle depth, height, and overall roughness.	[100]
Dermatological disorder	-The group using the product with colloidal oatmeal reported significantly less itching and registered fewer requests for antihistamines.	[101]
	-No associated toxicities.	[102]
	-Response to the treatment of Molluscum contagiosum with zinc oxide cream with colloidal oatmeal.	[103]
	-Western blot and real-time PCR analysis showed that ultraviolet B (UVB) radiation induced the expression of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) -1 and MMP-3 and blocked UVB-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS). -UVB-irradiated MMP expression regulation by inhibition of ROS-mediated MAPK/NF-jB and AP-1 activation.	[104]