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. 2021 Nov 26;11:22982. doi: 10.1038/s41598-021-02371-3

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© The Author(s) 2021

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Increased levels of the astrocytic marker GFAP in the cell culture medium and in extracellular vesicles following TBI. (A) The level of GFAP in the cell culture medium was assessed by ELISA and was found to be increased following TBI exposure, but not in the control or PF experimental groups (independent cell cultures, n = 6). (B) Cell culture medium was ultracentrifuged and the successful isolation of EVs of various sizes was verified by TEM. (C) Following isolation, EVs were lysed and GFAP levels were analysed using ELISA (independent cell cultures, n = 3). Quantification established increased levels in the TBI and TBI + PF experimental groups compared to control and Aβ protofibril exposure. Statistical analyses was performed using one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s multiple comparison test, *p ≤ 0.05 **p ≤ 0.01 ***p ≤ 0.001. Scale bars 500 nm (B).