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. 2021 Nov 27;9:235. doi: 10.1186/s40168-021-01181-z

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© The Author(s) 2021

Open AccessThis article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

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Fig. 7 — Effects of long-term TMAO exposure upon astrocytes and microglia in the entorhinal cortex and hippocampus of mice in conjunction with sub-acute inflammatory challenge. A Typical immunohistochemical staining of GFAP+ astrocytes in the entorhinal cortex of mice previously treated with TMAO through their drinking water (0.5 mg/ml) over 2 months, combined with a chronic low-dose administration of LPS (0.5 mg/kg/week, i.p.). Scale bar = 40 μm. B Typical immunohistochemical staining of Iba1+ microglia in the entorhinal cortex of mice previously treated with TMAO through their drinking water (0.5 mg/ml) over 2 months, combined with a chronic low-dose administration of LPS (0.5 mg/kg/week, i.p.), scale bar = 40 μm. C Astrocyte and microglial primary process number and in the entorhinal cortex of mice previously treated with TMAO through their drinking water (0.5 mg/ml) over 2 months, combined with a chronic low-dose administration of LPS (0.5 mg/kg/week, i.p.). Data are expressed as mean ± s.e.m., n = 4 mice. D Astrocyte and microglial density in the entorhinal cortex of mice previously treated with TMAO through their drinking water (0.5 mg/ml) over 2 months, combined with a chronic low-dose administration of LPS (0.5 mg/kg/week, i.p.). Data are expressed as mean ± s.e.m., n = 4 mice. E Typical immunohistochemical staining of GFAP+ astrocytes in the CA1 region of the hippocampus of mice previously treated with TMAO through their drinking water (0.5 mg/ml) over 2 months, combined with a chronic low-dose administration of LPS (0.5 mg/kg/week, i.p.). Scale bar = 40 μm F Typical immunohistochemical staining of Iba1+ microglia in the CA1 region of the hippocampus of mice previously treated with TMAO through their drinking water (0.5 mg/ml) over 2 months, combined with a chronic low-dose administration of LPS (0.5 mg/kg/week, i.p.), scale bar = 40 μm. G Astrocyte and microglial primary process number in the CA1 region of the hippocampus of mice previously treated with TMAO through their drinking water (0.5 mg/ml) over 2 months, combined with a chronic low-dose administration of LPS (0.5 mg/kg/week, i.p.). Data are expressed as mean ± s.e.m., n = 4 mice. H Astrocyte and microglial density in the CA1 region of the hippocampus of mice previously treated with TMAO through their drinking water (0.5 mg/ml) over 2 months, combined with a chronic low-dose administration of LPS (0.5 mg/kg/week, i.p.). Data are expressed as mean ± s.e.m., n = 4 mice