Table 1.
List of CVDs and Their Pathophysiology
| Disorder/Disease | Causative Factor | Pathophysiology | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cerebrovascular disease (stroke) | Cerebral haemorrhage and ischemia | The narrowing of veins due to atherosclerosis causes thrombosis, which reduces blood flow. Plaque build-up gradually narrows the vascular chamber, causing clots and thrombotic stroke. Haemorrhagic stroke is the most common type of stroke, accounting for 10–15% of all strokes and having a high fatality rate. Blood vessels break due to tension in the tissue and internal harm in this illness. It has harmful effects on the vascular system, which can lead to infarction. | Kuriakose and Xiao,144 Markus145 |
| Heart attacks | Smoking and coronary artery disease (CAD) | Plaque, a waxy substance that accumulates inside the lining of major coronary arteries, can block blood flow in the heart’s large arteries partially or entirely. An illness or injury that changes the way the heart’s arteries function might cause some types of this illness. Ischemia and subsequent myocardial infarction occur when a cardiac artery is fully blocked, resulting in a lack of oxygen and nutrients. | Libby and Theroux146 |
| Raised blood pressure (hypertension) | Elevated serum cholesterol, salt intake, glucose intolerance, obesity, and stress. | Systemic vascular resistance, vascular stiffness, and vascular response to stimuli are all elevated. | Foëx and Sear147 |
| Rheumatic heart disease | Congenital heart disease (CHD), mitral valve prolapse (MVP), acquired valve disease and changes in the valve of heart. | Cross-activation of antibodies and/or T cells directed against human proteins is caused by structural similarities between the infectious agent and human proteins. This cross-reactive immune response in acute rheumatic fever (ARF) causes rheumatic fever-like symptoms. It can affect many connective tissues in the heart that leads to inflammation. | Carapetis et al,148 Cunningham,149 Kumar and Tandon150 |
| Heart failure | Valvular heart disease, hypertension, viral myocarditis, atrial fibrillation, alcohol, coronary artery disease, arrhythmias and pericardial disease. | This is characterized by the heart’s inability to pump enough blood into the circulation during systole, which is known as left ventricular systolic dysfunction. The most common test for left ventricular systolic function is echocardiography, with an ejection fraction of 40% suggesting compromised left ventricular systolic function. Furthermore, heart failure with preserved left ventricular ejection fraction (PLVEF) or “diastolic” heart failure can arise in patients with adequate left ventricular systolic function who require higher filling pressures to achieve a normal end-diastolic volume of the left ventricle. | Mosterd and Hoes151 |
| Congenital heart disease | Maternal rubella infection, maternal systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), maternal diabetes, Down’s Syndrome and Turner’s Syndrome. | This mechanism of damage results in pulmonary vascular endothelial damage and the destruction of endothelial barrier function. This activates vascular elastase and matrix metalloproteinases, causing extracellular matrix degradation and fibroblast growth factor (FGF) and transforming growth factor β1 (TGF-β1) release. Smooth muscle cell hypertrophy and proliferation, as well as the creation of neo-intima, are all caused by such release. Overall incidence increases asymmetrical septal hypertrophy. | Pascall and Tulloh152 |