Table II.
Sample Demographics and Frequency of Perinatal Complications According to Exposure to Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)
| Low ACEs | Moderate ACEs | High ACEs | Total sample | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| (n = 92, 56.1%) | (n = 43, 26.2%) | (n = 29, 17.7%) | (n = 164) | |
| M (SD) or % (N) | M (SD) or % (N) | M (SD) or % (N) | M (SD) or % (N) | |
| Age (years) | 25.27 (5.4) | 26 (5.24) | 25.21 (6.59) | 25.45 (5.58) |
| BMI score | 30.24 (8.15) | 30.87 (9.60) | 28.95 (6.82) | 30.16 (8.31) |
| Overweight (BMI > 25)a | 40.5 (32) | 50 (19) | 44.4 (12) | 38.4 (63) |
| Race = Black | 38.5 (35) | 25.6 (11) | 6.9 (2) | 29.3 (48) |
| Race = AI/AN | 16.7 (15) | 11.6 (5) | 24.1 (7) | 16.5 (27) |
| Race = Hispanic | 9.9 (9) | 20.9 (9) | 6.9 (2) | 12.2 (20) |
| Race = White | 34.1 (31) | 18 (41.9) | 62.1 (18) | 40.9 (67) |
| Cotinine confirmed smokinga | 60.5 (32) | 54.3 (16) | 53.8 (14) | 50.0 (82) |
| Self-reported smoking | 30 (27) | 41.9 (18) | 37.9 (11) | 34.1 (56) |
| Self-reported alcohol use | 12.1 (11) | 23.3 (10) | 13.8 (4) | 15.2 (25) |
| Adverse infant outcome | 29.6 (21) | 16.1 (5) | 45.5 (10) | 22 (36) |
| Prematurity (≤37 weeks) | 21.1 (15) | 9.7 (3) | 18.2 (4) | 13.4 (22) |
| Gestational age (weeks) | 39.86 (2.08) | 40.44 (1.85) | 39.05 (3.47) | 39.85 (2.36) |
| Low birthweight (<2,500 g) | 17.7 (11) | 3.6 (1) | 20 (4) | 9.8 (16) |
| Birthweight (g) | 3,064.15 (607.32) | 3,325.79 (558.73) | 3,152.19 (625.79) | 3,146.93 (603.66) |
| NICU hospitalization | 14.3 (9) | 13.8 (4) | 30 (6) | 11.6 (19) |
| Maternal perinatal complication | 29.3 (27) | 34.9 (15) | 48.3 (14) | 34.1 (56) |
| Gestational diabetes | 6.5 (6) | 0.6 (1) | 1.8 (3) | 6.1 (10) |
| Hypertension | 9.8 (9) | 18.6 (8) | 24.1 (7) | 14.6 (24) |
| Perinatal loss | 5.4 (5) | 4.7 (2) | 10.3 (3) | 6.1 (10) |
| Emergency Cesarean section | 15.3 (11) | 12.5 (4) | 13.6 (3) | 11.0 (18) |
Note. AI/AN = American Indian/Alaskan Native. N = 164. All variables coded as yes/no (1/0) unless specified otherwise. Low ACEs = 0–2; moderate ACEs = 3–5; and high ACEs = 6+. Smoking, alcohol use, gestational diabetes, and hypertension were self-reported across pregnancy. Cotinine levels assayed from saliva. Adverse infant outcomes included prematurity, low birthweight, and NICU hospitalization. Maternal perinatal complications included gestational diabetes, hypertension, other perinatal complication, perinatal loss (miscarriage, stillbirth), and emergency Cesarean section. Other perinatal complication included prenatal bleeding, postpartum hemorrhage, pain, blood clot, and infection.
Assessed at first prenatal visit.