Fig. 1.

Helminth EVs and the epithelium.

Extracellular vesicles are released by all life stages of parasitic helminths, and are taken up by the epithelial cells that form the first layer of defense against them. EVs downregulate the IL-33 receptor subunit ST2 as well as regulators of MAP kinase signalling. EVs induce wound healing pathways and alter immune regulators such as IL-6, resulting in increased epithelial repair and compromised anti-helminth defense. Images are adapted from Servier Medical Art by Servier (http://smart.servier.com/) and modified by the authors under the following terms: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported (CC BY 3.0).