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. 2021 Nov 27;14:6251–6264. doi: 10.2147/JIR.S334423

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© 2021 Ikram et al.

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Traumatic brain injury and neuroinflammation. The figure illustrates the activation of microglia (Iba-1 and microglial receptor TLR-4), astrocytes (GFAP), MAP kinases (such as p-JNK and p-38), the release of the inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α and IL-1β), and release of chemokines, which may induce neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration.