Table 1.
Summary of the Drugs Used Against Traumatic Brain Injury-Induced Neurodegeneration, Therapeutic Targets, and Implications
Drugs | Pathophysiology/Therapeutic Target/Mechanisms | Clinical Trial Identifier Number | Treatment Efficacy |
---|---|---|---|
Minocycline | Anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic effects. | Minocycline: NCT01058395; NCT02802631 | Erythropoietin shows no beneficial effect in moderate or severe TBI patients.43 |
Methylprednisolone | Oxidative stress and neuroinflammation | Methylprednisolone: ISRCTN74459797; NCT00004759 | Anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative effects.44 |
Calpain/caspase inhibitors MDL 28170 | Anti-apoptosis, Axonal Injury Protection | No Clinical studies have been reported | The selective calpain-2 inhibitor can reduce TBI-induced cell death.45,46 |
Rapamycin | Autophagic dysfunction, neuroinflammation | No clinical studies have been reported. | Reduce neuroinflammation, Apoptosis, cognitive dysfunction, and astrogliosis.47 |
SNX-111 (Ziconotide) | Voltage-gated N-type calcium channel blocker | No clinical studies | Reduces prolonged, trauma-induced calcium accumulation, and neurodegeneration.48 |
Corticosteroids | Reduce the intracranial pressure | No clinical studies | Anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective.49 |
Darbepoetin alfa | Reduce oxidative stress and apoptosis. | No clinical studies | Antioxidant and anti-apoptotic in nature.50 |
Dizocilpine | Non-competitive NMDA receptor antagonist | No clinical studies | Glutamate receptor antagonist reduces neurodegeneration in brain injury.51 |
Recombinant factor VIIa (rFVIIa) | Reversal of iatrogenic coagulopathy in trauma patients | Clinical studies have been conducted. | Early administration of rFVIIa in this swine TBI model reduced neuronal necrosis and intracranial hemorrhage.52 |
Methylphenidate (Ritalin) | Central Nervous Stimulant | No clinical studies conducted | Attenuates attentional complaints after TBI.53 |