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. 2021 Nov 27;14:6251–6264. doi: 10.2147/JIR.S334423

Table 1.

Summary of the Drugs Used Against Traumatic Brain Injury-Induced Neurodegeneration, Therapeutic Targets, and Implications

Drugs Pathophysiology/Therapeutic Target/Mechanisms Clinical Trial Identifier Number Treatment Efficacy
Minocycline Anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic effects. Minocycline: NCT01058395; NCT02802631 Erythropoietin shows no beneficial effect in moderate or severe TBI patients.43
Methylprednisolone Oxidative stress and neuroinflammation Methylprednisolone: ISRCTN74459797; NCT00004759 Anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative effects.44
Calpain/caspase inhibitors MDL 28170 Anti-apoptosis, Axonal Injury Protection No Clinical studies have been reported The selective calpain-2 inhibitor can reduce TBI-induced cell death.45,46
Rapamycin Autophagic dysfunction, neuroinflammation No clinical studies have been reported. Reduce neuroinflammation, Apoptosis, cognitive dysfunction, and astrogliosis.47
SNX-111 (Ziconotide) Voltage-gated N-type calcium channel blocker No clinical studies Reduces prolonged, trauma-induced calcium accumulation, and neurodegeneration.48
Corticosteroids Reduce the intracranial pressure No clinical studies Anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective.49
Darbepoetin alfa Reduce oxidative stress and apoptosis. No clinical studies Antioxidant and anti-apoptotic in nature.50
Dizocilpine Non-competitive NMDA receptor antagonist No clinical studies Glutamate receptor antagonist reduces neurodegeneration in brain injury.51
Recombinant factor VIIa (rFVIIa) Reversal of iatrogenic coagulopathy in trauma patients Clinical studies have been conducted. Early administration of rFVIIa in this swine TBI model reduced neuronal necrosis and intracranial hemorrhage.52
Methylphenidate (Ritalin) Central Nervous Stimulant No clinical studies conducted Attenuates attentional complaints after TBI.53