Table 1.
Demographic characteristics by opioid use between one month before conception and the end of pregnancy, National Birth Defects Prevention Study (controls), 1997-2011
| Total (n = 10,491) |
No opioid use (n = 10,021) |
Opioid use duration | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Any (n = 470) | p† | ≤7 days (n = 234) |
p† | >7 days (n = 236) |
p† | |||
| Median opioid use duration (day) | NA | NA | 8 (2-45) | NA | 2 (1-4) | NA | 45 (21-153) | NA |
| Gestational age (week) | 38.7 ± 1.9 | 38.7 ± 1.9 | 38.5 ± 1.9 | 0.013 | 38.6 ± 1.6 | 0.679 | 38.3 ± 2.2 | 0.005 |
| <37 (preterm) | 838 (8.0) | 787 (7.9) | 51 (10.9) | 0.019 | 24 (10.3) | 0.178 | 27 (11.4) | 0.044 |
| ≥37 (term) | 9,653 (92.0) | 9,234 (92.1) | 419 (89.1) | 210 (897) | 209 (88.6) | |||
| Birthweight among term births (g)‡ | 3430.9 ± 460.1 | 3431.4 ± 459.6 | 3420.9 ± 469.6 | 0.647 | 3459.6 ± 464.7 | 0.380 | 3382.0 ± 472.5 | 0.125 |
| <2500 (low) | 172 (1.8) | 167 (1.8) | 5 (1.2) | 0.352 | 1 (0.5) | 0.189 | 4 (1.9) | 0.792 |
| ≥2500 (normal) | 9,481 (98.2) | 9,067 (98.2) | 414 (98.8) | 209 (99.5) | 205 (98.1) | |||
| Maternal age at delivery (years) | 27.7 ± 6.1 | 27.8 ± 6.1 | 27.3 ± 5.5 | 0.079 | 27.2 ± 57 | 0.141 | 27.4 ± 5.4 | 0.354 |
| <20 | 1,034 (9.9) | 1,003 (10.0) | 31 (6.6) | 0.0002 | 15 (6.4) | 0.035 | 16 (6.8) | 0.003 |
| 20-34 | 7,977 (76.0) | 7,582 (75.7) | 395 (84.0) | 194 (82.9) | 201 (85.2) | |||
| ≥35 | 1,480 (14.1) | 1,436 (14.3) | 44 (9.4) | 25 (10.7) | 19 (8.0) | |||
| Maternal race/ethnicity | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | |||||
| Non-Hispanic White | 6,313 (60.2) | 5,954 (59.4) | 359 (76.4) | 180 (76.9) | 179 (75.9) | |||
| Non-Hispanic Black | 1,199 (11.4) | 1,151 (11.5) | 48 (10.2) | 21 (9.0) | 27 (11.4) | |||
| Hispanic | 2,270 (21.6) | 2,228 (22.2) | 42 (8.9) | 21 (9.0) | 21 (8.9) | |||
| Other/mixed | 709 (6.8) | 688 (6.9) | 21 (4.5) | 12 (5.1) | 9 (3.8) | |||
| Maternal education | <0.0001 | 0.0006 | 0.018 | |||||
| <High school | 1,527 (14.6) | 1,489 (14.9) | 38 (8.1) | 16 (6.8) | 22 (9.3) | |||
| ≥High school | 8,964 (85.4) | 8,532 (85.1) | 432 (91.9) | 218 (93.2) | 214 (90.7) | |||
| Maternal pre-pregnancy BMI (kg/m2) | 0.040 | 0.112 | 0.175 | |||||
| Not obese (<30) | 8,568 (81.7) | 8,201 (81.8) | 367 (78.1) | 182 (77.8) | 185 (78.4) | |||
| Obese (≥30) | 1,923 (18.3) | 1,820 (18.2) | 103 (21.9) | 52 (22.2) | 51 (21.6) | |||
| Maternal smoking§ | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | |||||
| Yes | 1,945 (18.5) | 1,766 (17.6) | 179 (38.1) | 79 (33.8) | 100 (42.4) | |||
| No | 8,546 (81.5) | 8,255 (82.4) | 291 (61.9) | 155 (66.2) | 136 (57.6) | |||
| Maternal alcohol consumption§ | 0.020 | 0.321 | 0.019 | |||||
| Yes | 4,039 (38.5) | 3,834 (38.3) | 205 (43.6) | 97 (41.5) | 108 (45.8) | |||
| No | 6,452 (61.5) | 6,187 (61.7) | 265 (56.4) | 137 (58.5) | 128 (54.2) | |||
| Maternal residence | <0.0001 | 0.005 | <0.0001 | |||||
| Arkansas | 1,351 (12.9) | 1,251 (12.5) | 100 (21.3) | 43 (18.4) | 57 (24.2) | |||
| California | 1,087 (10.4) | 1,047 (10.4) | 40 (8.5) | 22 (9.4) | 18 (7.6) | |||
| Georgia | 1,121 (10.7) | 1,080 (10.8) | 41 (8.7) | 23 (9.8) | 18 (7.6) | |||
| Iowa | 1,207 (11.5) | 1,140 (11.4) | 67 (14.2) | 40 (17.1) | 27 (11.4) | |||
| Massachusetts | 1,295 (12.3) | 1,236 (12.3) | 59 (12.5) | 30 (12.8) | 29 (12.3) | |||
| New Jersey | 523 (5.0) | 510 (5.1) | 13 (2.8) | 7 (3.0) | 6 (2.6) | |||
| New York | 914 (8.7) | 884 (8.8) | 30 (6.4) | 12 (5.1) | 18 (7.6) | |||
| North Carolina | 884 (8.4) | 847 (8.5) | 37 (7.9) | 20 (8.6) | 17 (7.2) | |||
| Texas | 1,157 (11.0) | 1,121 (11.2) | 36 (7.7) | 15 (6.4) | 21 (8.9) | |||
| Utah | 952 (9.1) | 905 (9.0) | 47 (10.0) | 22 (9.4) | 25 (10.6) | |||
| Estimated date of delivery year | 0.221 | 0.372 | 0.378 | |||||
| 1997-2001 | 3,128 (29.8) | 3,004 (30.0) | 124 (26.4) | 63 (26.9) | 61 (25.9) | |||
| 2002-2006 | 3,822 (36.4) | 3,638 (36.3) | 184 (39.1) | 95 (40.6) | 89 (37.7) | |||
| 2007-2011 | 3,541 (33.8) | 3,379 (33.7) | 162 (34.5) | 76 (32.5) | 86 (36.4) | |||
NA, not applicable; BMI, body mass index.
Data are median (25th percentile-75th percentile), mean ± standard deviation, or n (percent).
†
Compared to no opioid use, p values were calculated using two-sample t-tests for continuous variables and chi-square and Fisher’s exact tests for categorical variables.
‡
Total term births: n = 9,653; No opioid use term births: n = 9,234; Any opioid use term births: n = 414; ≤ 7 days opioid use term births: n = 210; > 7 days of opioid use term births: n = 209.
§
Reported use between one month before conception and the third month of pregnancy.