Table 2.
Opioid exposure type and duration between one month before conception and the end of pregnancy, National Birth Defects Prevention Study (controls), 1997-2011
| Opioid name | Opioid use duration† | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| Any N (percent) | ≤7 days N (percent) | >7 days N (percent) | |
| Any opioid | 470 (100) | 234 (49.8) | 236 (50.2) |
| Specific opioids‡ | |||
| Buprenorphine | 2 (0.4) | 0 | 2 (0.9) |
| Butorphanol | 7 (1.5) | 2 (0.9) | 5 (2.1) |
| Codeine | 170 (36.2) | 82 (35.0) | 88 (37.3) |
| Hydrocodone | 163 (34.7) | 71 (30.3) | 92 (39.0) |
| Hydromorphone | 7 (1.5) | 1 (0.4) | 6 (2.5) |
| Meperidine | 50 (10.6) | 26 (11.1) | 24 (10.2) |
| Methadone | 7 (1.5) | 0 | 7 (3.0) |
| Morphine | 52 (11.1) | 28 (12.0) | 24 (10.2) |
| Nalbuphine | 1 (0.2) | 0 | 1 (0.4) |
| Oxycodone | 75 (16.0) | 38 (16.2) | 37 (15.7) |
| Propoxyphene | 33 (7.0) | 8 (3.4) | 25 (10.6) |
| Tramadol | 8 (1.7) | 2 (0.9) | 6 (2.5) |
†
Exposures for individual medications do not add to the total opioid exposed count of 470 because 87 (19 percent) women reported using more than one opioid medication.
‡
There was no reported use of fentanyl and pentazocine.