TABLE 5.

The improved properties and development of synthetic organs prepared from nanocellulose-based composites.

Cellulose type and reinforcement material	Synthetic strategy	Improved/added properties	Applications	References
Gelatin, hydroxyapatite, and procyanidins	Ex-situ	Porosity, mechanical strength, cell viability, in vivo bone formation	Bone tissue engineering	Huang et al. (2017)
Hydroxyapatite, CNC	—	Improved thermal properties, biocompatible	Bone tissue engineering	Niamsap et al. (2019)
Hydroxyapatite and graphene oxide	Ex-situ	Water uptake, in vitro degradation, cell adhesion and growth, and ALP activity	Bone tissue engineering	Ramani and Sastry, (2014)
HAp	Post-synthesis loading	Ca2+ and PO4 2− present, significant improvement of osteoblast growth, adhesion, and osteoconductivity on BC-HAp membranes		Tazi et al. (2012)
BNC	3D printing	Biocompatible and suitable mechanical properties	Artificial kidney and liver	Recouvreux et al. (2011)
BNC	In-situ	Bilayer, mechanical stability, porous	Neo cartilage formation	Martínez Ávila et al. (2015)
BNC and agarose	Molding	Aligned fiber	Neural cell proliferation	Zang et al. (2014)
BNC	In-situ	Tubular structure, biocompatible	Blood vessels	Lin et al. (2013)
BNC and polydimethylsiloxane	Molding	Tubular and biocompatible	Artificial blood vessels	Zang et al. (2015)
BNC	Freeze-drying	Biocompatible, transparent, and suitable mechanical properties	Artificial cornea	Jia et al. (2009)
GO	Ex-situ	Less crystalline	Neural cell proliferation	Kim et al. (2017)
Fibrin	Ex-situ	Biocompatible	Vascular graft	Karimian et al. (2019)
Peptide	Crosslinking	Biocompatible	Blood vessels	Lin et al. (2013)
BNC and PVA	Ex-situ	Suitable mechanical properties and anisotropic behavior	Heart valve	Mohammadi, (2011)
BNC and PVA	Ex-situ	Transparent, UV absorbent, high mechanical strength, and thermal stability	Artificial cornea	Wang et al. (2010a)
CNC and ionic liquids	Regeneration	Transparent, high WHC	Ocular bandage	Patchan et al. (2013)
BNC, otoliths, and collagen	Post-synthesis loading	Formation of bone tissue with higher osteoblast activity, high degree of regularity, and osteo-reabsorption activities	Bone tissue engineering	Olyveira et al. (2011)
BNC and Col1	Post-synthesis cross-linking	Tensile strength and elastic modulus for BC-Col1 decreased, a slight increase in strain at break, similar cell morphology, and cell proliferation/viability	Bone tissue engineering	Saska et al. (2012)