Table 2.

Path models estimating children’s executive functions and related skills at first grade and fourth grade from physical activity and sports participation one year earlier

	Executive functions and related skills at first grade
Predictors from kindergarten	Inhibitory control			Cognitive flexibility			Working memory			Attentional control			Social self-control
	b	SE	β	b	SE	β	b	SE	β	b	SE	β	b	SE	β
Model 1
Number of days	0.00	0.01	−0.01	−0.01	0.01	−0.01	0.05	0.10	0.00	0.00	0.01	0.01	0.00	0.00	0.00
Model 2
Number of days	0.00	0.01	−0.01	0.00	0.01	−0.01	0.02	0.10	0.00	0.00	0.01	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00
Group sports	0.08**	0.03	0.03	0.11	0.06	0.02	0.87	0.46	0.02	0.08**	0.03	0.03	0.03*	0.02	0.03
Individual sports	0.00	0.03	0.00	−0.06	0.04	−0.01	0.83	0.56	0.02	0.01	0.03	0.00	−0.01	0.01	−0.01
	Executive functions and related skills at fourth grade
	Inhibitory control			Cognitive flexibility			Working memory			Attentional control			Social self-control
Predictors from third grade	b	SE	β	b	SE	β	b	SE	β	b	SE	β	b	SE	β
Model 3
Number of days	0.02**	0.01	0.05	0.01*	0.01	0.03	0.26*	0.12	0.03	0.02	0.01	0.03	0.00	0.00	0.02
Model 4
Number of days	0.02**	0.01	0.04	0.01*	0.01	0.03	0.23*	0.12	0.02	0.01*	0.01	0.03	0.00	0.00	0.01
Group sports	0.05*	0.02	0.03	0.09***	0.02	0.04	1.17*	0.56	0.03	0.07*	0.03	0.03	0.04*	0.02	0.03
Individual sports	0.03	0.02	0.02	−0.02	0.02	−0.01	0.52	0.56	0.01	0.04	0.03	0.02	0.01	0.02	0.01

Note. All models account for clustering within sampling units and included the following covariates: skill level one year earlier, parental education and income, child activity level relative to others their age, and children’s race and gender.

^*p < .05

^**p < .01

^***p < .001