Table 1.

Roles of TCM in the liver, kidney, and intestine to ameliorate hyperuricemia in experimental studies.

Name of herb(s) or formulas	Main ingredient(s) or component(s)	Animal Model(s) and/or cell(s)	Main action(s) and possible mechanism	References
Hepatic effects (in simples)
Cinnamomum cassia	Cassia oil	PO-induced HUA mice	Lower liver XDH/XOD activities	[13, 14]
Cinnamomum osmophloeum Kaneh. leaf	Essential oil (cinnamaldehyde)	PO-induced HUA mice	Inhibitory effects on XOD	[15]
Lonicera hypoglauca Miq.	Lonicera flavone	In vivo and in vitro PO-induced HUA mice	Suppress XOD activity	[16]
Rhizomes of Curcuma longa L.	Curcumin	PO-induced HUA mice	Suppress serum and liver XOD; suppress NLRP3	[17]
Smilax china L.	Engeletin, astilbin, polydatin, chlorogenic acid, protocatechuic aldehyde, caffeic acid, rutin, oxyresveratrol, and resveratrol	In vivo and in intro, Fructose induced HUA rats	Suppress XOD activity; inhibiting TGF-β1, CTGF, PGE2, IL-1	[18, 19]
Aurantii fructus immaturus carbonisata	Carbon dots	In vivo and in intro, PO & hypoxanthine induced HUA rats and MSU induced gout rats	Inhibit serum and liver XOD activity	[20]
Cordyceps militaris (L. ex Fr.) Link	Exopolysaccharides	PO-induced HUA mice	XOD inhibitory activities; renal protection	[21]
Hepatic effects (in formulas)
Ermiao wan	Phellodendri cortex and rhizome atractylodis	PO-induced HUA mice	Inhibiting XDH and XO activities; improved kidney fibrosis	[22]
Renal actions (in simples)
Cordyceps militaris (L. ex Fr.) Link.	LYS145, ARG477, ARG325, and ASP168	PO-induced HUA mice	Inhibition activity on URAT1 protein levels	[23]
Herbaceous peony	Total glucosides	Adenine and ethambutol induced urate	Upregulate renal OAT1, downregulate renal GLUT9 and URAT1; improved kidney histopathological alterations	[24]
Rhizoma Dioscoreae Nipponicae	Total saponins	PO-induced HUA mice	Regulate OAT1, OAT3, URAT1and GLUT9 mRNA and protein levels	[25]
Fraxini Cortex	Aesculetin, aesculin, fraxetin, and fraxin,	Hypoxanthine and PO induce HUA Rats	Downregulated GLUT9 and URAT1 mRNA and protein levels	[26]
Renal actions (in formulas)
Simiao pill	Phellodendri cortex, atractylodis rhizome, achyranthes root, and coix seed	PO-induced HUA mice	Increase FEUA levels and decreased serum uric acid levels; regulate renal mOAT1, mURAT1, and mGLUT9,renal mOCTN1, mOCTN2, and mOCT1, mOCT2,	[27]
Wuling San	Polyporus umbellatus (Pers.) Fries, Wolfiporia cocos (Schw.) Ryv. & Gibn, Alisma, plantago-aquatica subsp. orientale (Sam.) Sam., Cinnamomi cortex, Atractylodes macrocephala, Koidz.	PO-induced HUA mice and high fructose fed HUA mice	Downregulate renal mGLUT9 and mURAT1 mRNA and protein levels , upregulate those of mOAT1, mOCT1, mOCT2, and mOCTN2;reverse dysregulation of URAT1, GLUT9, ABCG2 and OAT1, and OCT1 and OCT2 ,inhibit TLR4/MyD88 signaling and NF-κB, signaling and MAPKs; suppress NLRP3 and renal secretion of IL-1β	[28, 29]
Erding formula (Erding granule)	Viola yedoensis Makino Lobelia chinensis Lour, Taraxacum mongolicum Hand.-Mazz. and Isatis, indigotica Fort, PO-induced HUA mice	PO-induced HUA mice	Suppress URAT1 mRNA expression and enhance that of OAT3; analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects; downregulate GLUT9 and URAT1 protein expression and upregulate OAT1 protein expression	[30, 31]
Compound tufuling granules	Rhizoma Smilacis Glabrae, Rhizoma, Dioscoreae Hypoglaucae, Pseudobulbus, Cremastrae seu Pleiones, Semen Vaccariae, Radix Achyranthis Bidentatae	Yeast extract and PO-induced HUA mice	Inhibit GLUT9	[32, 33]
Xie-Zhuo-Chu-Bi-Fang	Smilacis glabrae rhizoma, Heterosmilacis, Rhizoma, Cremastrae Pseudobulbus, Achyranthis, Bidentatae Radix, and Vaccariae Semen	Yeast extract and PO-induced HUA mice	Inhibit URAT1 mRNA expression	[34, 35]
Quzhuotongbi decoction	Smilax glabra Roxb., Dioscorea septemloba Thunb., Maydis stigma, coix seed, Alismatis rhizome, Humulus scandens, Parasitic loranthus, Herba Siegesbeckiae, turmeric, Corydalis, Rhizoma and Citrus medica	A high yeast-fed HUA rat	Inhibit URAT1 expression	[36]
Renal and intestinal actions (in simples)
Dioscorea tokoro Makino ex Miyabe	Dioscin (tigogenin)	PO-induced HUA mice	Inhibit URAT1and promote ABCG2	[37]
Chicory (Cichorium intybus L.)	Aesculin, chicoric acid, chlorogenic acid, 14(15)-diene-3α-ol, 13,14-seco-stigma5(6), and isochlorogenic acid A/B/C,	In vivo and in intro, fructose induced HUA mice	Downregulate XOD activity and upregulate renal OAT3 mRNA; downregulate intestinal ABCG2 mRNA and protein. Suppress renal GLUT9 protein	[38–40]
Hepatic and renal dual actions (in simples)
Smilax glabra Roxb.	Total flavonoids (neoastilbin, astilbin, neoisoastilbin, and isoastilbin)	PO-induced HUA mice	Suppress XOD and upregulate the expression of OAT1, OCTN2, and the mRNA (mOAT1 and mOCTN2) in kidney tissue	[41]
Gnaphalium pensylvanicum willd.	Caffeoylquinic acid derivatives (chlorogenic acid, 3,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid, 4,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid methyl ester and 1,5- dicaffeoylquinic acid)	PO-induced HUA mice	Downregulate GLUT9 and URAT1 expression, upregulate OAT1 expression, and inhibit XOD activity	[42]
Smilax riparia	Total saponins (smilax-chinoside A and smilax-chinoside C. timosaponin J and riparoside B)	PO-induced HUA mice	Downregulate renal mURAT1, inhibit XOD	[43–46]
Morus alba L.	Morin(3,5,7,2',4'-pentahydroxyflavone)	In vivo and in vitro, PO-induced HUA mice	Regulate URAT1 (need further research), inhibition of XOD	[47]
Paederia scandens	Asperuloside, paederoside, and scandoside	In vivo and in intro, PO-induced HUA mice	Inhibit XOD, inhibit renal urate reabsorption	[48]
Camellia sinensis Theaceae	Green tea polyphenols (catechins)	PO-induced HUA mice	Inhibit serum and liver XOD, decrease URAT1 expression and promote OAT1 and OAT3 expression	[49]
Alismatis rhizoma and rhizoma smilacis glabrae	Not available	PO & adenine induced HUA rats	Inhibit XOD, downregulate renal URAT1 expression	[50]
Hepatic and renal dual actions (in formulas)
Sanmiao wan	Achyranthes root, phellodendri cortex, and atractylodes rhizome	PO-induced HUA mice	Inhibit hepatic XOD, downregulate kidney mURAT1	[51]
Modified Chuanhu anti-gout mixture	D. nipponica, P. cuspidatum, honeysuckle rattan, Radix cyathulae, glabrous greenbrier, Radix saposhnikoviae, Radix clematidis, Rhizoma chuanxiong, coix seed, Glycyrrhizae radix et rhizome	PO-induced HUA mice	Inhibit liver XOD and kidney URAT1 levels	[52]
ShiZhiFang	Plantago seeds, white mustard seeds, vaccaria seeds, and abutilon seeds	PO-induced HUA rats	Facilitate renal rOAT3 and rOAT1 transcription and expression and inhibit serum XOD activity	[53]
Hepatic, renal, and intestinal triple actions (in simples)
Dendrobium officinalis six nostrum	SiMiao Wan by adding Dendrobium officinalis	PO & high-fat sorghum induced HUA with hyperlipidemia rat	Upregulate HPRT1, inhibit liver XOD, increase renal and intestinal ABCG2 content, reduce PDZK1content, and inhibit NLRP3 and caspase 1 activation	[54]
Antioxidative and anti-inflammatory effects
Rhizoma smilacis glabrae	Water extract	Monosodium urate and PO-induced HUA and gout murine	Upregulating the expression of catalase	[55–57]
Alpinia officinarum Hance	Galangin	In vitro	Suppression NLRP3, NF-κB and PI3K /AKT PKB signaling pathway activation	[58]

HUA, hyperuricemia; PO, potassium oxonate; MSU, monosodium urate; XO/XOD, xanthine oxidase; XDH, xanthine dehydrogenase; CTGF, connective tissue growth factor; PGE2, prostaglandin E2; IL, interleukin; URAT1, urate transporter one; GLUT9, glucose transporter nine; OAT1/3, organic anion transporter one and three; FEUA, fraction excretion of uric acid; OCT1/2, organic cation transporter; OCTN1/2, organic cation/carnitine transporter one and two; TLR4/MyD88, toll-like receptor 4 /myeloid differentiation factor 88; NF-κB, nuclear factor-kappa B; MAPKs, mitogen-activated protein kinases; NLRP3, the NOD-like receptor P3 inflammasome; ABCG2, adenosine triphosphate- (ATP-) binding cassette transporter two; HGPRT, hypoxanthine guanine phosphoribosyl transferase; PI3K, phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase; PKB, protein kinase B; PDZK1, PDZ domain protein kidney one; SOD, superoxide dismutase; GSH glutathione; MDA, malondialdehyde.