Table 1.

Clinical manifestation summary of pulmonary fibrosis induced by viruses

Virus	Clinical manifestation	Assessment of fibrosis	Reversibility of pulmonary fibrosis	References
Human T-cell leukemia virus	ATL, leukemic cell infiltration, pulmonary fibrosis	CT showed ground glass opacities, bronchiectasis, centrilobular nodules, septal thickening, honeycombing and crazy-paving, suggesting the presence of pulmonary fibrosis	No mention	Assessment:[4]; reversibility: None
Human immunodeficiency virus	Interstitial pneumonia, pulmonary fibrosis	HRCT demonstrated areas of ground glass opacification, consolidation and honeycombing, with interstitial infiltrate as the histopathologic feature	No mention	Assessment:[10]; reversibility: None
Cytomegalovirus	Interstitial pneumonia, pulmonary fibrosis	HRCT demonstrated bilateral mixed areas of ground-glass opacity, poorly-defined centrilobular small nodules, and consolidation	No mention	Assessment:[22]; reversibility: None
Epstein–Barr virus	Unspecific interstitial lung disease, pulmonary fibrosis	The open-lung biopsy showed uncharacteristic focal interstitial peribronchial infiltration in the left lower lobe, with histiocytes and lymphocytes as well as interstitial fibrosis and increased collagen tissue	Reversible: After 26 months, chest X-ray showed only slight interstitial markings	Assessment:[29]; reversibility: [29]
Influenza virus	ARDS, DAD bronchoalveolar pneumonia, pulmonary fibrosis	Histologic features included bronchoalveolar pneumonia, interstitial septal thickening, type II pneumonocyte hyperplasia, fibrosis and squamous metaplasia. HRCT demonstrated ground glass opacity and consolidation	Reversible: The one month follow-up CT scans showed that the fibrosis resolved	Assessment:[36, 37]; reversibility: [37]
Avian influenza virus	ARDS, lymphopenia, pulmonary fibrosis	CT findings in H5N1 and H7N9 patients were ground-glass opacities and lobar consolidation	Reversible: The 12th month follow-up CT of patient showed only minimal residual fibrous lines	Assessment:[44, 46]; reversibility: [44]
MERS-CoV	ARDS, multi-lobar airspace disease, pulmonary fibrosis	CT showed multi-lobar airspace disease, ground-glass opacities and pleural effusions	No mention	Assessment:[57]; reversibility: none
SARS-CoV	ARDS, DAD, pulmonary fibrosis	The histopathological findings were extensive edema, hyaline membrane formation, alveolar collapse, and alveolar epithelial desquamation. CT showed ground-glass opacities and consolidation	Reversible: HRCT scan showed improvement of pulmonary fibrosis in one month	Assessment:[67, 68, 71]; reversibility: [69, 72]
SARS-CoV-2	ARDS, DAD, pulmonary fibrosis	Histopathological examination of the lung biopsy tissues revealed bilateral acute changes with DAD, reactive type II pneumocyte and macrophage hyperplasia, patchy inflammatory cellular infiltration and loose interstitial fibrosis	Reversible: Thin-section chest CT showed that pulmonary fibrosis developed in COVID-19 patients could reverse in about a third of the patients 120 days after the onset	Assessment:[88]; reversibility: [86]