Table 4.

Key findings mapped to the diffusion of innovations framework

Element of diffusion of innovations theory	Impact on rate of adoption	Findings
Relative advantage	Increases rate	AI offers a relative advantage by improving the working lives of clinicians Risk of bias in AI tools reduces this relative advantage The degree of relative advantage needed for adoption of AI in the NHS has not been agreed: absence of a gold standard
Compatibility	Increases rate	NHS IT infrastructure may not be compatible with AI Regulatory landscape is not compatible with AI Certain specialties are more compatible with AI Transferability of AI tools may be poor: they may only be compatible with a single NHS site
Complexity	Decreases rate	Improved language clarity around AI could reduce its perceived complexity Education about AI could reduce its perceived complexity
Trialability	Increases rate	High up-front costs of AI, combined with the existing financial pressures facing the NHS, limit its trialability
Observability	Increases rate	Black box AI reduces the observability of the decision-making process
Time: adopter categories	n/a	Some healthcare professionals will be more or less resistant to adopting AI: this reflects the five adopter categories
Social system: opinion leaders	Increases rate	Champions could be used as facilitators of AI adoption; these reflect the opinion leaders described by Rogers