Table 2.

In vivo model systems and associated obesogens.

Model System(in vivo)	Chemical	Source/Use	Proposed Mechanism	Effects	References
Mice	Tributyltin (TBT)	Biocide/antifoulant/pesticide	PPARγ and RXRα agonist	Increases epididymal adipose mass in adults. Increases lipid accumulation in adipose depots, liver, and testis of neonate mice.	(49)
	Bisphenol A (BPA)	Found in plastic products such as water pipes and toys; found in electronic equipment	Acts partially through GR signaling; enhances expression of adipogenic genes and lipogenic enzymes, acts on PPARγ	Increases body weight, fat mass, chronic inflammation, and inflammation in white adipose tissues.	(71, 72)
	Bisphenol S (BPS)	A BPA substitute; used in the manufacture of plastics and resins. Ingestion from food is the major source of BPS exposure	PPARγ activator; increases expression of PPARγ	Increases liver triglycerides, causes hyperinsulinemia, induces changes in gene expression, causes changes in liver DNA methylation.	(73, 74)
	Diethylstilbestrol (DES)	A synthetic estrogen previously used in pharmaceuticals during pregnancy	Estrogenic activity	Induces significant increase in body weight and reproductive abnormalities	(75, 76)
	Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE)	Pesticide DDE is the metabolite of DDT	Inconclusive	Induces thermogenic impairment of brown adipose tissue, obesity, insulin resistance, and dyslipidemia	(77, 78)
	DBT	Used to make of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastics and medical devices	PPARγ and RXRα agonist; increases the expression of adipogenic genes	Induces increased lipid accumulation, fat storage, leptin levels, and glucose intolerance.	(79)
	Triflumizole	Fungicide	PPARγ activator	Increases adipose depot weight and adipogenic gene expression	(80)
	Tolylfluanid	Fungicide	Acts through glucocorticoid receptor signaling	Induces higher body weight, fat mass, visceral adipose depots, glucose intolerance, insulin resistance, and metabolic and energy disturbances	(81)
	Diethyl-hexyl-phthalate (DEHP)	Found in personal care products, lubricants, pesticides, paints, and PVC plastics. Exposure is mainly through food via food packaging	PPARγ activator	Increases body weight, adipose tissue, lipids, and glucose levels	(82)
	Cadmium (Cd)	Ingestion of contaminated foods	Inconclusive	Induces metabolic syndrome-like phenotypes (impaired glucose and insulin functioning, hepatic steatosis, weight gain, increase in fat), oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction.	(83)
	Di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate	Used in the making of PVC plastics and vinyl products; used in lubricants, emulsifying agents, and cosmetics	Possible PPARγ activator	Induces glucose intolerance, insulin resistance, hepatic steatosis/steatohepatitis, increased leptin levels, increased cholesterol, and white adipose tissue disfunction.	(84)
Rats	Bisphenol A (BPA)	Found in plastic products	Activates Erα and Erβ; thyroid hormone receptor antagonist	Induces an increase in body weight and white adipose tissue, adipocyte hypertrophy, and increased expression of adipogenic genes	(85)
	Tributyltin (TBT)	Biocide and molluscicide	RXR and PPARγ activation	Causes ovarian obesogenic effects	(86)
Zebrafish (Danio rerio	Mono ethyl phthalate (MEHP) and	Primary metabolite of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP)	PPARγ agonist	Obesogenic properties	(87)
	Tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA)	Flame retardant	PPARγ agonist	Obesogenic properties	(87)
	Cadmium	Ingestion of contaminated foods, cigarette smoke, and breathing contaminated air	Inconclusive	Increased lipid accumulation	(88)
Frog (Xenopus laevi)	Tributyltin (TBT)	Biocides, antifoulants, pesticides	PPARγ and RXRα agonist	Formation of ectopic adipocytes in and around gonadal tissues	(49)