Table 4.

Scaffold-based organoids and their applications in disease modeling.

Organ Type	Disease Applications
Brain	Autism—Patient-derived iPSC developed into neural organoids show overproduction of GABAergic inhibitory neurons [175]. Microcephaly—Patient-derived human iPSC cerebral organoids model microcephaly via loss of the CDK5RAP2 protein [176]. Viral infection—Human neural stem cell organoids infected with Zika virus exhibited decreased size and increased death of brain cells [177]. Cancer—Human glioblastoma-derived organoids maintain tumorigenic potential and heterogeneity [178].
GI tract	Ulcerative colitis—Human epithelial organoid cultures from UC patients exhibited differences from non-UC patient organoids in expression of genes associated with microbial defense, secretion, absorption, and gastric phenotype [179]. Cancer—CRISPR/Cas9 was used to modify 4 commonly mutated colorectal cancer genes in human intestinal stem cells. The organoids produced were xenotransplanted into mice and grew as tumors with features of invasive carcinoma [180].
	Cystic Fibrosis—The drug response in primary rectal organoids from CF patients can be used to predict the patient’s specific drug response [181].
Liver	Liver failure—Human 3D bioprinted hepatorganoids transplanted into Fah-deficient mice rescued liver function and improved survivability of mice [182].
Lung	Cancer—Patient-derived organoids formed from human lung adenocarcinoma cells retained the architecture and gene expression of the tumors they were derived from [183]. Pulmonary fibrosis—Human pluripotent stem cells were used to develop alveolar epithelial organoids of differentiated cells. TGF-β1 treatment induced fibrotic changes [184].
Pancreas	Cancer—Primary human pancreatic adenocarcinoma organoids retain heterogeneity and histoarchitecture of parent tumor as well as physiological changes specific to the patient of origin [185].