Table 4.

Optimism and self-esteem in college students from 2007 to 2015.

Optimism							Self-Esteem
	Cohen’s d/η2	Mean	S.D.	Never	Sometimes	Always		Cohen’s d/η2	Mean	S.D.	Very High (35–40)	High (30–34)	Moderate (20–29)	Low (≤19)
Year	0.011 ***						Year	0.002
2007		1.53	0.53	1.8%	43.5%	54.7%	2007		28.97	3.87	8.1%	32.0%	58.3%	1.6%
2008		1.51	0.53	1.5%	45.8%	52.7%	2008		28.71	3.87	8.9%	28.2%	62.0%	0.9%
2009		1.56	0.51	0.7%	43.1%	56.2%	2009		28.75	3.95	8.8%	27.7%	61.8%	1.7%
2010		1.59	0.53	1.8%	37.1%	61.1%	2010		28.67	3.6	6.2%	27.2%	65.6%	1.0%
2011		1.57	0.52	1.3%	40.5%	58.2%	2011		28.97	3.92	8.8%	32.3%	57.5%	1.4%
2012		1.61	0.52	1.8%	35.8%	62.4%	2012		28.98	3.74	7.9%	32.3%	59.4%	0.4%
2013		1.68	0.48	0.8%	30.5%	68.7%	2013		28.59	3.81	7.9%	27.0%	64.3%	0.8%
2014		1.66	0.49	0.9%	32.3%	66.8%	2014		29.1	4.05	10.4%	31.2%	57.3%	1.2%
2015		1.66	0.49	0.6%	32.5%	66.8%	2015		28.96	3.94	10.3%	27.4%	61.7%	0.6%
Gender	0.078 ***						Gender	0.052 *
Male		1.62	0.52	1.9%	33.9%	64.2%	Male		29	3.96	9.7%	30.7%	58.3%	1.3%
Female		1.58	0.51	0.9%	40.1%	59.0%	Female		28.8	3.81	7.9%	29.3%	61.9%	0.9%
Year in school	0.003 **						Year in school	0.003
Freshman		1.59	0.52	1.2%	39.1%	59.7%	Freshman		29	4	9.9%	29.8%	59.1%	1.2%
Sophomore		1.58	0.52	1.2%	39.1%	59.7%	Sophomore		28.59	3.72	6.8%	28.3%	63.9%	1.1%
Junior		1.57	0.53	1.6%	39.2%	59.1%	Junior		28.75	3.74	7.5%	29.8%	61.8%	0.9%
Senior		1.66	0.5	1.1%	32.3%	66.6%	Senior		29.18	3.96	10.0%	31.9%	57.1%	1.1%
Hometown	0.116 ***						Hometown	0.183 ***
Urban		1.62	0.51	1.2%	35.6%	63.2%	Urban		29.15	3.94	9.8%	32.0%	57.1%	1.1%
Rural		1.56	0.52	1.4%	41.2%	57.4%	Rural		28.45	3.71	6.7%	26.6%	65.7%	1.1%

Note: * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.