Figure 4.

IH-induced dysfunctions in adipose tissues, skeletal muscle cells, and hepatocytes. Adipose tissues, skeletal muscle, and the liver are the main endocrine organs producing adipokines, myokines, and hepatokines, respectively. IH stimuli induce the expression/secretion of cytokines, which induce and/or worsen insulin resistance, glucose intolerance, and T2DM in adipocytes, skeletal muscle cells, and hepatocytes. IH also inhibits glucose-induced insulin secretion via the downregulation of CD38 [22] and vascular smooth muscle proliferation via IL-6-induced epiregulin expression [23,114]. IH promoted the production of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 and caused inflammation and cell apoptosis in pancreatic tissue via the MAPK signaling pathway [109]. Black up and down arrows mean increment and decrease, respectively.