Table 1.
Study Characteristics.
| Ref. | Participants 1 | Age 2 | n | Type of Task | Domain | Study Type 3 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| [52] | University students | 23.00 | 38 | Collaborative Programming | Computer sciences | Case study |
| [53] | University students + adults | - | 11 | VR: Virtual patient scenario | Medicine | Experiment |
| [54] | University students | 26.04 (2.30) | 15 | Educational game virtual patient | Medicine | Experiment |
| [55] | High school students | - | 21 | Building a bridge and a tower | Physics | Experiment |
| [39] | Primary school students | 11.60 (0.54) | 214 | Inquiry-based learning lessons | Sciences | Case study |
| [56] | University students + adults | 18–45 | 24 | VR: problem-solving task | Problem- solving | Case study |
| [57] | High school students | - | 35 | ITS: geometry tasks | Geometry | Experiment |
| [58] | Adults | 25.87 (3.85) | 15 | Educational game: stakeholder management | Project management | Experiment |
| [49] | University students | 23.50 (6.57) | 70 | Vocabulary training | Language | Experiment |
| [59] | Primary school students | 7.50 (0.47) | 104 | Geometry tasks & physical learning | Geometry | Experiment |
| [60] | Students | - | 38 | Programming tasks | Computer sciences | Case study |
| [46] | University students | 21.00 (1.90) | 67 | ITS: human circulatory system tasks | Biology | Case study |
| [61] | University students | 24.30 (3.50) | 37 | Diagnostic reasoning tasks | Medicine | Experiment |
| [40] | University students | 20.63 (2.13) | 61 | Electrical circuits troubleshooting | Physics | Experiment |
| [62] | University students | 18–30 | 20 | ITS: physics, computer literacy, critical thinking tasks | Physics | Experiment |
| [63] | University students | 19–20 | 18 | E-learning: mathematics & electric circuit tasks | Mathematics & physics | Experiment |
| [36] | University students | - | 76 | Exam | Engineering | Experiment |
| [50] | University students | 24.37 (5.81) | 19 | Aviation training | Aviation | Experiment |
| [64] | High school students | 17.4 (0.67) | 48 | CSCL: design a healthy breakfast | Biology | Case study |
| [65] | Primary school students | 12.37 (0.55) | 48 | Reading comprehension task | Language | Experiment |
| [66] | Adults | 21–34 | 39 | Reading task | Language | Experiment |
| [33] | High school students | 16–17 | 24 | Online exam | Physics | Case study |
| [67] | University students | 19.24 (0.83) | 32 | Programming questions | Computer sciences | Case study |
| [68] | University students | 23.20 (4.07) | 95 | Test | Mathematics | Experiment |
| [69] | Adults | 33.10 (13.40) | 75 | Educational video’s | Medicine | Experiment |
| [70] | University students | 18–20 | 18 | Workshop design | Design | Experiment |
| [71] | University students | - | 7 | Engineering problems | Engineering | Experiment |
1 Adults refer to all adults with no enrollment in a specific form of education (such as university). 2 M (SD) or range, - means no information is given, VR = Virtual Reality, ITS = Intelligent Tutoring System, CSCL = Computer Supported Collaborative Learning. 3 We defined a case study as an in-depth exploration and an experiment as a study in which specific relations and hypotheses are tested in an experimental setting.