Table 3.
Extracts of plants with anti-PCa activities.
| Plant name and plant part | Extract name | Mechanism of action | In vitro | In vivo | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Leaves of Polyalthia longifolia | Methanolic extract (1) | Enhanced G1/S phase arrest, intrinsic apoptosis (Caspase3, -9), and ER stress (upregulated GRP78, ATF4, and IRE1α levels). XBP1, Calnexin, CDK4, -6, Cyclin A2, and Cyclin D1 were downregulated; reduced tumor overload in nude mice. | PC3, DU145, C4-2, PC3M-LUC-C6 | PC3M-LUC-C6 cell xenograft | Afolabi et al. (2019) |
| The root of Taraxacum officinale and Cymbopogon citratus | Aqueous extract of Taraxacum (Dandelion) (DRE) and Cymbopogon (lemongrass) ethanolic extract (LGE) (2) | Induced oxidative stress, and apoptosis via caspase cascade; reduced tumor overload alone and in synergy with taxol and mitoxantrone. | PC3, DU145 | DU145, PC3 xenograft | Nguyen (2019) |
| The seed extract of Litchi chinensis | n-butyl alcohol extract (3) | Induced mitochondrial-dependent apoptosis, G1/S phase arrest by blocking Akt signaling; Inhibited cell migration, invasion, and EMT through downregulation of AKT/GSK-3β signaling, Vimentin, and Snail while upregulating E-cadherin and β-catenin; ameliorated tumor overload in nude mice without toxicity to normal cells. | PC3, DU145, RM1, and C4–2B | PC3 xenograft | Guo et al. (2017) |
| Whole plant extract of Wedelia chinensis | Ethanolic extract (rich in flavonoids) (4) | Blocked the AR, HER2/3, and Akt signaling networks and increased the therapeutic efficacy of androgen ablation in PCa as well as in an in vivo adapted castration-resistant PCa (CRPC) model. | PC-3, DU145, 22Rv1, and LNCaP | LNCaP, 22Rv1 xenograft | Tsai et al. (2017b) |
| Leaves of Maytenus royleanus | Methanolic extract (5) | Potentiated caspase-mediated apoptosis, G2 arrest, and downregulation of cyclin/cdk networks; suppressed AR/PSA signaling ex vivo as well as in vivo; reduced tumor growth. | C4-2 and CWR22Rν1 | CWR22Rν1 xenograft | Shabbir et al. (2015) |
| Vegetative material of Sutherlandia frutescens | Methanolic extract (6) | Inhibited cellular growth via modulating Gli/Hh signaling; blocked the formation of poorly differentiated carcinoma in prostates of TRAMP mice. | PC3, LNCaP, TRAMP-C2 | Male B6FVB-F1 TRAMP mice | Lin et al. (2016) |
| Roots of Kalanchoe gastonis-bonnieri (BIRM) | Liquid extract (7) | Induced caspase 8 mediated apoptosis; degraded AR through the proteasome pathway; inhibited p-Akt and in vivo tumor growth. | DU145, LNCaP, PC-3ML | PC-3ML grafted in FOXN1 inbred athymic mice | Shamaladevi et al. (2016) |
| Acanthopanax trifoliatus | Extract rich in triterpenoids (8) | Potentiated cell death by apoptosis by suppressing NF-κB and STAT-3 in vitro and in vivo. | PC3 | PC3 xenograft | Li et al. (2015) |
| Leaves of Hibiscus sabdariffa | Polyphenol rich aqueous extract (9) | Induced cell death; blocked cell invasion via down-regulation of Akt/NF-κB/MMP-9 pathway in vitro and in vivo. | LNCaP | LNCaP xenograft | Chiu et al. (2015) |
| Roots of Eurycoma longifolia | Quassinoids rich containing methanolic extract (10) | Induced apoptosis; inhibited cell cycle arrest (G0/G1 and G2/M); modulated cyclin/cdk levels; blocked AR translocation to the nucleus and thereby PSA level; suppressed tumor growth in vivo. | LNCaP, PC-3, RWPE-1, WRL 68 | LNCaP xenograft | Tong et al. (2015) |
| Leaves and roots of Arum Palaestinum | Aqueous extract (11) | Inhibited PCa spheroid formation and tumor overload in vivo. | 22Rv1 | PC3-MM2 grafted nu/nu mice | Cole et al. (2015) |
| Knots of Pinus sylvestris | Lignan and stilbenoid rich ethanol-water extract (12) | Induced apoptotic death in vivo via enhancing TRAIL pathway at well-tolerated doses to the normal cells. | PC3M-luc2 | PC3M-luc2 grafted Foxn1nu nude mice | Yatkin et al. (2014) |
| Leaves of Azadirachta indica | Supercritical CO2 extract of leaves (13) | Inhibited dihydrotestosterone-induced androgen receptor and PSA levels; blocked Integrin b1, Calreticulin, and Focal adhesion kinase activation; ameliorated tumor growth and enhanced AKR1C2 level in vivo. | LNCaP-luc2, PC3 | LNCaP-luc2 xenograft | Wu et al. (2014) |
| Leaves of Piper betel | Methanolic extract (14) | Induced apoptosis in cells in vitro and in vivo tumor model. | PC3, DU145, 22Rv1,RWPE-1, PC3-luc cells | PC3-luc xenograft | Paranjpe et al. (2013) |
| Leaves of Ipomoea batatus | Polyphenol (Quinic acid (QA), caffeic acid, its ester clonogenic acid, and isochlorogenic acids, 4, 5-di-CQA, 3,5-di-CQA, and 3,4-di-CQA) rich methanolic extract (15) | Inhibited growth, proliferation of the cell, and progression of tumor xenograft. | PC3, PC3-luc cells | PC3-luc xenograft | Gundala et al. (2013) |
| Whole Zingiber officinale | Methanolic extract (16) | Induced cell cycle arrest and mitochondria-dependent apoptosis in vitro; reduced tumor burden and induced apoptosis in vivo. | PrEC, LNCaP, C4-2, C4–2B, DU145 and PC3 | PC3 xenograft | Karna et al. (2012) |
| Leaves of Hibiscus sabdariffa | Aqueous extract (17) | Induced apoptosis by intrinsic and extrinsic pathways in androgen-dependent PCa cells; reduced tumor burden in vivo. | Human CaP, LNCaP, PC3 and DU145 | LNCaP xenograft | Lin et al. (2012) |
| Leaves of Ipomoea batatus | Polyphenol rich methanolic extract (18) | Induced cell cycle arrests, and mitochondria-dependent apoptosis in vitro; reduced tumor burden via apoptotic death in tumor cells. | LNCaP, DU145, PC3, C4-2, C4–2B, PC3-luc | PC3-luc xenograft | Karna et al. (2011) |
| Leaves of Camellia ptilophylla | Aqueous extract (19) | Induced cell cycle arrest and caspase-mediated apoptosis; inhibited nuclear translocation and phosphorylation of NF-κB, and activation of IKKα, while inhibition of phosphorylation and degradation of IκBα and regressed tumor growth in vivo. | PC3 | PC3 xenograft | Peng et al. (2010) |
| Aerial parts of Saussurea involucrata | Different solvent extracts (20) | Ethyl acetate fraction blocked the proliferation of PCa cells, caused G1 arrest, modulated cell cycle markers, and induced mitochondria-dependent apoptosis; lowered the phosphorylation of EGFR, activation of Akt and STAT3 activity in vitro, and tumor growth in vivo. | PC3 and LNCaP | PC3 grafted BALB/c nude mice | Way et al. (2010) |
| Rhizome of Bergenia ligulata | Polyphenol rich ethyl acetate fraction (21) | Induced death of PC3 cells ex vivo and in vivo by oxidative stress-mediated by overactivation of MAO-A | PC3 | PC3 grafted SCID mice | Ghosh (2021) |
Abbreviations used in the table: ATF4, activating transcription factor; IRE1α, serine/threonine-protein kinase/endoribonuclease inositol-requiring enzyme 1 α; XBP1, X-Box binding protein 1; TRAIL, TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand; GRP78, glucose regulated protein 78; ER stress, endoplasmic reticulum stress; p-GSK3β, phospho-glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta; STAT3, signal transducer and activator of transcription 3; HER2/3, human epidermal growth factor receptor 2/3; AKR1C2, aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C2; IKKα, inhibitory κβ kinase α; IKBα, nuclear factor of kappa light polypeptide gene enhancer in B-cells inhibitor, alpha; EGFR, epidermal growth factor receptor.