Table 2.

Regulatory factors regulating autophagy and tumor behaviors

Regulatory factors	ATGs	Stage of autophagy	Cancer type	Tumor promotion /Tumor suppression	Tumor Behavior	Molecular mechanism	Ref.
TRPM3	ULK1 LC3	Induce autophagy initiation and maturation	Clear cell renal cell carcinoma	Tumor promotion	Proliferation	TRPM3 promotes autophagy through miR-214 and CAMKK2-ULK1 cascade, thus supports the ccRCC cell growth.	[76]
TRIM59	Beclin-1	induce autophagy nucleation	Non-small cell lung cancer	Tumor promotion	Tumor progression	TRIM59 promotes the transcription and the ubiquitination of BECN1 to facilitate tumor progression.	[77]
POX	Beclin-1 LC3	Induce autophagy nucleation and maturation	Colorectal cancer	Tumor promotion	Tumor survival	POX induces autophagy activation and promotes tumor cell survival in hypoxic TME.	[78]
CK1α	ATG7	Induce autophagy maturation	Lung tumor	Tumor suppression	Proliferation	CK1α activates PTEN/AKT/FOXO3a/ ATG7 axis to induce autophagy and suppress lung tumor growth.	[79]
IFN-γ	LC3	Induce autophagy maturation	Hepatocellular carcinoma	Tumor suppression	Proliferation	IFN-γ induces autophagy through IRF-1 to inhibit tumor growth.	[80]
IFN-γ	Beclin-1	Induce autophagy nucleation	Gastric cancer	Tumor suppression	Tumorigenesis	IFN-γ induces autophagy through upregulation of Beclin-1 for inhibiting tumorigenesis.	[81]
HOTAIR	Beclin-1 LC3	Inhibit autophagic activity	Cervical cancer	Tumor promotion	EMT process and radioresistance	HOTAIR attenuates sensitivity to radiotherapy by reduction of autophagy and reversal of EMT via Wnt signaling.	[82]
CTA	LC3 p62	Inhibit autophagy maturation	Osteosarcoma	Tumor suppression	Apoptosis and chemoresistance	CTA promotes apoptosis and reduces chemoresistance via downregulating BNIP3/BNIP3L and autophagy.	[83]
miR-93	Beclin-1 ATG4B ATG5	Inhibit autophagy nucleation and maturation	Glioblastoma	Tumor promotion	Chemoresistance	miRNA-93 inhibits multiple autophagy protein and reduces chemoresistance in GSCs.	[84]
miR-18a* miR-4802	ATG7 ULK1	Inhibit autophagy initiation and maturation	Colorectal cancer	Tumor promotion	Chemoresistance	Selective loss of miR-18a*/4802 activates cancer autophagy and enhances CRC chemoresistance.	[36]
FXYD6	Beclin-1 LC3 p62	Inhibit autophagy nucleation and maturation	Colorectal cancer	Tumor suppression	Chemoresistance	FXYD6 regulates cell autophagy via ATP-α1 activity and decreases chemotherapy resistance.	[85]
IRF1	Beclin-1 ATG7	Inhibit autophagy nucleation and maturation	Breast cancer	Tumor suppression	Chemoresistance	IRF1 inhibits the formation of autophagic vacuole and BECN1 expression to restore drug sensitivity to ICI.	[86]
HMGB1	LC3 p62	Induce autophagy maturation	Leukemia	Tumor promotion	Chemoresistance	HMGB1 induces autophagy through the PI3K/MEK/ERK pathway, thus promotes chemotherapy resistance.	[87]

TRPM3 transient receptor potential melastatin-3, ULK1 unc-51-like kinase 1, LC3A light chain 3A, LC3B light chain 3B, CAMKK2 calcium-calmodulin-dependent protein kinase kinase-2, TRIM59 tripartite motif 59, BECN1 Beclin1, POX Proline Oxidase, CK1α casein kinase 1 α, ATG7 autophagy related 7, IFN-γ interferon γ, IRF1 interferon regulatory factor 1, EMT epithelial-mesenchymal transition, DOX doxorubicin, BNIP3 Bcl-2-interacting protein 3, BNIP3L BCL-2-interacting protein 3 like, ATG4B autophagy related 4B, ATG5 autophagy related 5, GSC glioblastoma cell, FXYD6 FXYD domain containing ion transport regulator 6, ICI immune checkpoint inhibitors, HMGB1 high mobility group box-1