Table 2.
Unadjusted ecological association of a county's sociodemographic characteristics with COVID-19–confirmed case rate
| Impact factor | Direct (county-own) effect |
Indirect (spillover) effect |
||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| per 1% rate increase | Marginal effect (95% CI) | p value | Marginal effect (95% CI) | p value |
| All CVD drugs use | +0.016 (0.007 to 0.026) | 0.001 | −0.98 (−1.45 to −0.50) | <0.0001 |
| Births in 2019 | +0.45 (0.36 to 0.55) | <0.0001 | −7.09 (−9.05 to −5.14) | <0.0001 |
| Deaths in 2019 | −0.08 (−0.16 to −0.005) | 0.037 | −0.41 (−1.26 to 0.43) | 0.337 |
| GQ Population 2019 | +0.02 (0.002 to 0.03) | 0.027 | 0.24 (−0.34 to 0.81) | 0.424 |
| Poverty | +0.01 (0.009 to 0.015) | <0.0001 | −0.05 (−0.10 to −0.013) | 0.01 |
| Median HH income | −0.001 (−0.002 to −0.01) | 0.004 | −0.17 (−0.90 to 0.57) | 0.658 |
| Poor/fair health | +2.84 (2.43 to 3.25) | <0.0001 | −21.44 (−31.34 to −11.54) | <0.0001 |
| Smoking | +2.83 (2.30 to 3.36) | <0.0001 | −77.0 (−130.5 to −23.6) | 0.005 |
| Obesity | +1.04 (0.75 to 1.34) | <0.0001 | −7.02 (−16.40 to 2.35) | 0.142 |
| Physical inactivity | +0.88 (0.59 to 1.16) | <0.0001 | +0.36 (−5.05 to 5.76) | 0.897 |
| Drinking | +0.21 (−0.51 to 0.93) | 0.573 | −1.29 (−8.71 to 6.14) | 0.734 |
| Uninsured (all) | +1.07 (0.55 to 1.59) | <0.0001 | +2.52 (−1.04 to 6.08) | 0.165 |
| Some college | −0.67 (−0.82 to −0.52) | <0.0001 | +2.58 (0.99 to 4.17) | 0.001 |
| Air pollution index | +0.07 (0.06 to 0.09) | <0.0001 | −1.22 (−1.75 to −0.69) | <0.0001 |
| HH with high cost | +0.01 (−0.50 to 0.51) | 0.984 | −34.2 (−41.5 to −26.9) | <0.0001 |
| Food insecurity | +0.18 (−0.31 to 0.67) | 0.474 | −8.48 (−14.68 to −2.64) | 0.005 |
| Insufficient sleep | +2.61 (2.06 to 3.17) | <0.0001 | −47.5 (−65.9 to −29.2) | <0.0001 |
| Population age <18 | +2.45 (1.89 to 3.02) | <0.0001 | +18.05 (16.67 to 19.43) | <0.0001 |
| Population age >65 | −2.38 (−2.76 to −2.00) | <0.0001 | +13.56 (9.07 to 18.04) | <0.0001 |
| Non-Hispanic Black | +0.49 (0.38 to 0.60) | <0.0001 | −2.73 (−3.94 to −1.51) | <0.0001 |
| Native Americans | +0.70 (0.48 to 0.92) | <0.0001 | +31.3 (26.7 to 35.6) | <0.0001 |
| Asians | −0.26 (−1.25 to 0.73) | 0.602 | −9.18 (−25.5 to 7.1) | 0.270 |
| Pacific Islanders | −8.1 (−15.7 to −0.6) | 0.034 | −369.1 (−656.2 to −81.9) | 0.012 |
| Hispanics | +1.09 (0.93 to 1.25) | <0.0001 | −4.6 (−6.8 to −2.3) | <0.0001 |
| Non-Hispanic White | −0.71 (−0.82 to −0.61) | <0.0001 | +1.34 (0.47 to 2.21) | 0.003 |
| Female | −2.31 (−3.02 to −1.61) | <0.0001 | +32.6 (25.9 to 39.2) | <0.0001 |
| CVD hospitalizations | +0.004 (0.003 to 0.006) | <0.0001 | −0.09 (−0.11 to −0.06) | <0.0001 |
| CVD death | +0.001 (0.0008 to 0.002) | <0.0001 | −0.01 (−0.018 to −0.003) | 0.006 |
| HF hospitalizations | +0.01 (0.009 to 0.014) | <0.0001 | −0.17 (−0.21 to −0.14) | <0.0001 |
| HF death | +0.0009 (0.0003 to 0.0015) | 0.005 | +0.001 (−0.008 to 0.010) | 0.830 |
| CHD hospitalizations | +0.013 (0.007 to 0.018) | <0.0001 | −0.39 (−0.59 to −0.19) | <0.0001 |
| CHD death | +0.001 (0.0009 to 0.002) | <0.0001 | −0.01 (−0.02 to −0.0009) | 0.031 |
| Diabetes mellitus | +0.01 (0.009 to 0.02) | <0.0001 | −0.15 (−0.27 to −0.04) | 0.010 |
CHD = coronary heart disease; CI = confidence interval; CVD = cardiovascular disease; HF = heart failure; HH = household.
Statistically significant findings (p<0.05) are highlighted by Bold.