TABLE 1.

Different cellular stress responses affected by ELF‐EMF exposure

Experiment performed	ELF‐EMF treatment	Cell line	Observed effects
1. Heat‐shock protein response
Corallo et al. 140	100 Hz	Primary osteoarthritic chondrocytes	Increased Mn‐superoxide‐dismutase and heat‐shock proteins expression
Alfieri et al. 141	50 Hz, 0.68 mT	Endothelial cells	A poor and transient activation of HSF1
Frahm et al. 142	50 Hz, 1 mT	Mouse macrophages	Hsp70 and Hsp110 exhibited increased levels at certain time point
Wei et al. 143	15 Hz, 2 mT	Hypoxic cardiomyocytes	Significantly increased HSP70 mRNA expression
Bernardini 144	50 Hz	Porcine aortic endothelial cells	Increase in the mRNA levels of HSP70 No increase in Hsp27, Hsp70 and Hsp90 protein levels
Akan et al. 145	50 Hz, 1 mT	THP‐1 cells	Increased hsp70 levels in a time‐dependent manner
2. Unfold protein response
Chen et al. 161	Picosecond pulsed electric fields	HeLa cells	Affected the phosphorylation levels of endoplasmic reticulum sensors and upregulated the expression of GRP78, GRP94 and CHOP
Keczan et al. 162	PEMF	HEK263T	No remarkable effect
		HepG2	No remarkable effect
		HeLa	Increased BiP, Grp94 and CHOP expression
3. Autophagy
Chen et al. 173	Pulsed electromagnetic fields (2 mT, 50 Hz)	Embryonic fibroblasts (MEF)	A significant increase in autophagic biomarkers including LC3‐II and formation of GFP‐LC3 puncta was observed
4. NF‐kB activation
Kim et al. 204		RAW264.7 cells	Enhanced translocation of phosphorylated NF‐κB in to the nucleus and induction of inflammatory responses
5. SIRT3 activation
Falone et al. 196	ELF‐EMF 1 mT, 50 Hz	SH‐SY5Y	Upregulation of the major sirtuins, increased signalling activity of the NRF2