Table 1.

Various studies on the protection mechanisms of Salmonella-Schistosomes co-infections

Study design	Significant findings	Conclusion
Intraperitoneal application of live S. mansoni eggs prior to infection with S. Typhimurium [14]	An impairment of IFN-γ and IL-17 responses together with a higher bacterial load compared to Salmonella infection alone IPSE/alpha-1 is known to trigger IL-4 and IL-13 release from basophils, which in turn is known to suppress Th1/Th17 responses	S. mansoni infection impairs a protective immune response against Salmonella infection
Evaluation of Schistosoma-mediated protection of S. Typhimurium strain SL1344 from other antibiotics in flatworm [32]	A reduction in efficacy of antibiotics due to the association of Schistosomes and Salmonella Insignificant elevation in the antibiotic resistance when the non-invasive isostrain and hyperinvasiveisostrain were recalcitrant to the antibiotics	The protection mechanism is related to the glycocalyx of Schistosoma integral milieu. Fimbrial protein (FimH) found in the surface of the bacterium is the feature conferring abilities for Salmonella to bind
Elucidating rheumatoid factors in Salmonella and Schistosoma infections [52]	Titres of rheumatoid factor decreased. 2-mercaptoethanol was consistently eliminated Similar complete elimination of Salmonella somatic antigen agglutinins was observed in sera of some patients with either chronic or acute Salmonella infection	Further study is deemed on the pathogenesis of IgM anti-globulin antibodies associated with infections
NMR-based metabonomics and immunological techniques for the systemic metabolic and immune responses using a mouse model of co-infection [45]	S. Typhimurium (ATCC14028) infection reduced the number of adult S. japonicum adults and eggs, relieved symptoms of schistosomiasis and also abated the mortality of mice infected by S. japonicum S. Typhimurium co-infection counteracted the metabolic disturbances associated with schistosomiasis, which was reflected by the reverted levels of metabolites in co-infected mice Shift of the immune response to different pathogens is a result of indirect interactions between S. japonicum and S. Typhimurium within the host	S. Typhimurium infection can ameliorate S. japonicum-induced schistosomiasis in BALB/c mice. This is most likely due to inverse immune polarization
To elucidate the mechanism(s) of the parasite-parasite interaction of S. Typhimurium LT2 on the surface of Schistosoma mansoni, S. haematobium and S. japonicum [53]	100% association of the ga/E and fla mutants with male schistosomes, but a reduced interaction with female worms Reduction in the rough A and pilimutants’ ability to associate with both male and female S. mansoni Pili function in adhesion of Salmonella to the surface tegument of S. mansoni and S. haematobium	Persistence of Salmonella infection may due to the association with Salmonella spp.
Salmonella Typhimurium and Enteritidis intestinal carriage and S. mansoni infection using multi-locus variable-numbers tandem repeat analysis (MLVA) [6]	The proportion of Salmonella carriage is higher among S. mansoni infected participants and even higher in those showing fever	Salmonella intestinal carriage was associated with a heavy intensity of S. mansoni infection
Pilus-negative and a pilus-producing transductant strain of S. Typhimurium in an in vitro system [3]	The association of S. Typhimurium to the surface tegument of Schistosoma The Schistosoma helminths provide a multiplication focus for these bacteria in the portal mesenteric system, with a persisting bacteremia	Pili are the ligands for bacterial adherence to the schistosome surface tegument. Prolonged salmonellosis in Schistosome-infected patients is due to an association of Salmonella spp. with the Schistosoma worms themselves