Table 4.
Multinomial logistic regression showing relative risk ratios for the associations between maternal and sociodemographic factors and maternal continuum of care-seeking behaviour in Kenya and Uganda, using Demographic and Health Surveys 2014–2016 data
| Variables | Highest (≥4 ANC visits, facility birth and PNC) |
Higher (2–3 ANC visits, facility birth, PNC) | High (≥4 ANC visits, facility birth, no PNC) |
Moderately high (2–3 AN C visits, facility birth, no PNC) |
Slightly high (≥4 ANC visits, no facility birth, PNC) | Moderately low (≥4 ANC visits, no facility birth, no PNC) | Moderately lower (2–3 ANC visits, no facility birth, PNC) |
Very low (2–3 ANC visits, no facility birth, no PNC) | 7th lowest (1 ANC visit, facility birth, PNC) |
6th lowest (1 ANC visit, facility birth, no PNC) |
5th lowest (1 ANC visit, no facility birth, PNC) |
4th lowest (1 ANC visit, no facility birth, no PNC) |
3rd lowest (no ANC visit, facility birth, no PNC) |
2nd lowest (no ANC visit, no facility birth, PNC) |
| Versus lowest (no ANC, no facility birth, no PNC) care-seeking level, 95% CI) | ||||||||||||||
| Maternal education level | ||||||||||||||
| No education | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
| Primary | 3.2 (2.3 to 4.4) |
3.2 (2.2,4.6) |
3.4 (2.4 to 4.9) |
2.7 (1.9 to 4.0) |
2.1 (1.5 to 3.1) |
2.3 (1.6 to 3.2) |
2.1 (1.5 to 3.2) |
2.8 (2.0 to 4.0) |
2.6 (1.2 to 5.7) |
1.5 (0.7 to 3.0) |
1.7 (0.8 to 3.8) |
1.7 (1.0 to 2.8) |
2.6 (0.8 to 9.0) |
0.9 (0.5 to 1.6) |
| Secondary and higher | 8.0 (4.0 to 16.3) |
6.9 (3.3 to 14.1) |
6.9 (3.4,14.2) |
4.9 (2.3 to 10.2) |
2.5 (1.2 to 5.4) |
3.1 (1.5 to 6.4) |
3.9 (1.8 to 8.4) |
2.9 (1.7 to 4.9) |
3.4 (1.1 to 10.7) |
1.7 (0.5 to 5.4) |
2.1 (0.6 to 8.2) |
1.5 (0.5 to 4.1) |
4.3 (0.8,23.0) |
0.6 (0.1 to 2.9) |
| Partner/husband education level | ||||||||||||||
| No education | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
| Primary | 3.3 (2.4 to 4.7) |
3.4 (2.4 to 5.0) |
3.6 (2.5 to 5.3) |
4.7 (3.1 to 7.1) |
2.6 (1.8 to 3.9) |
2.1 (1.5 to 3.1) |
2.7 (1.8 to 4.0) |
2.7 (1.9 to 3.8) |
3.4 (1.3 to 8.7) |
1.9 (0.9 to 4.1) |
1.9 (0.8 to 4.4) |
2.5 (1.5 to 4.4) |
– | 1.2 (0.7 to 2.2) |
| Secondary and higher | 6.4 (3.8 to 10.6) |
5.5 (3.2 to 9.2) |
6.2 (3.7 to 10.6) |
7.2 (4.1 to 12.7) |
3.7 (2.1 to 6.5) |
3.0 (1.8 to 5.1) |
3.4 (1.9 to 6.0) |
2.9 (1.7 to 4.9) |
6.0 (2.1 to 17.4) |
2.3 (0.9 to 6.1) |
2.1 (0.7 to 6.3) |
3.3 (1.5 to 6.9) |
– | 1.2 (0.5 to 3.0) |
| Distance to the nearest health facility is a big problem. | ||||||||||||||
| No | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
| Yes | 0.6 (0.5 to 0.8) |
0.6 (0.5 to 0.8) |
0.7 (0.5 to 0.9) |
0.7 (0.5 to 0.9) |
0.6 (0.5 to 0.8) |
0.8 (0.6 to 1.0) |
0.7 (0.5 to 0.9) |
0.8 (0.6 to 1.1) |
0.7 (0.4 to 1.2) |
0.6 (0.3 to 1.0) |
0.7 (0.4 to 1.3) |
1.1 (0.7 to 1.6 |
0.6 (0.3 to 1.4) |
0.8 (0.5 to 1.3) |
| Desire to have a child | ||||||||||||||
| No | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
| Yes | 1.5 (1.0 to 2.2) |
1.3 (0.9 to 2.0) |
1.6 (1.1 to 2.4) |
1.2 (0.8 to 1.8) |
1.3 (0.8 to 2.0) |
1.4 (1.0 to 2.2) |
0.9 (0.5 to 1.3) |
1.3 (0.9 to 2.0) |
0.7 (0.3 to 1.4) |
0.8 (0.4 to 1.7) |
0.5 (0.2 to 1.2) |
1.0 (0.6 to 1.8) |
0.5 (0.2 to 1.7) |
0.4 (0.2 to 0.7) |
| Mass media exposure | ||||||||||||||
| No | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
| Yes | 3.2 (2.4 to 4.2) |
2.7 (2.0 to 3.6) |
2.7 (2.0 to 3.6) |
2.7 (2.0 to 3.7) |
3.0 (2.2 to 4.1) |
2.1 (1.6 to 2.8) |
3.0 (2.2 to 4.2) |
1.8 (1.4 to 2.4) |
2.9 (1.6 to 5.4) |
1.6 (0.9 to 3.0) |
3.2 (1.6 to 6.3) |
1.5 (1.0 to 2.4) |
2.0 (0.8 to 4.8) |
2.0 (1.2 to 3.2) |
| Told about pregnancy, birth complications (only Kenya) versus very low care-seeking level | ||||||||||||||
| No | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref | Ref. | Ref. | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Yes | 2.6 (2.0 to 3.2) |
1.7 (1.3 to 2.2) |
2.1 (1.7 to 2.8) |
1.1 (1.0 to 1.7) |
2.0 (1.6 to 2.5) |
1.2 (0.9 to 1.6) |
1.5 (1.2 to 1.9) |
– | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Who ultimately makes care-seeking decisions | ||||||||||||||
| Respondent alone | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
| Both | 0.5 (0.4 to 0.8) |
0.6 (0.4 to 0.8) |
0.6 (0.4 to 0.9) |
0.5 (0.4 to 0.8) |
0.5 (0.3 to 0.7) |
0.5 (0.4 to 0.8) |
0.5 (0.3 to 0.7) |
0.7 (0.5 to 0.9) |
0.5 (0.3 to 0.9) |
1.3 (0.6 to 2.5) |
0.4 (0.2 to 0.9) |
0.5 (0.3 to 0.9) |
0.4 (0.1 to 1.0) |
0.9 (0.5 to 1.7) |
| Husband alone | 0.5 (0.4 to 0.7) |
0.5 (0.4 to 0.7) |
0.7 (0.5 to 0.9) |
0.5 (0.3 to 0.7) |
0.5 (0.3 to 0.7) |
0.5 (0.3 to 0.7) |
0.7 (0.4 to 1.0) |
0.7 (0.5 to 0.9) |
0.5 (0.3 to 1.0) |
1.1 (0.5 to 2.5) |
0.6 (0.3 to 1.4) |
0.7 (0.4 to 1.2) |
0.7 (0.3 to 1.8) |
1.1 (0.6 to 2.2) |
| Maternal age (years) | ||||||||||||||
| 15–24 | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
| 25–34 | 0.9 (0.6 to 1.3) |
0.7 (0.5 to 1.1) |
0.6 (0.4 to 1.0) |
0.6 (0.4 to 0.9) |
0.9 (0.5 to 1.3) |
0.6 (0.4 to 0.9) |
0.9 (0.6 to 1.5) |
0.6 (0.4 to 1.0) |
0.4 (0.2 to 0.8) |
0.8 (0.3 to 1.7) |
0.4 (0.2 to 1.2) |
0.5 (0.3 to 0.9) |
0.5 (0.2 to 1.3) |
0.5 (0.1 to 1.0) |
| 35–49 | 0.8 0.5 to 1.3 |
0.6 (0.4 to 1.1) |
0.6 (0.4 to 1.0) |
0.5 (0.3 to 0.8) |
0.9 (0.5 to 1.5) |
0.5 (0.3 to 0.8) |
0.8 (0.5 to 1.5) |
0.6 (0.4 to 1.1) |
0.4 (0.1 to 0.9) |
0.9 (0.3 to 2.4) |
0.8 (0.3 to 2.3) |
0.6 (0.3 to 1.2) |
0.3 (0.1 to 1.4) |
0.3 (0.1 to 0.7) |
| Place of residence | ||||||||||||||
| Urban | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
| Rural | 0.4 (0.2 to 0.6) |
0.4 (0.2 to 0.6) |
0.3 (0.2 to 0.5) |
0.4 (0.3 to 0.7) |
0.4 (0.2 to 0.6) |
0.7 (0.4 to 1.1) |
0.4 (0.2 to 0.6) |
0.7 (0.4 to 1.1) |
0.3 (0.2 to 0.7) |
0.2 (0.1 to 0.4) |
0.4 (0.2 to 1.0) |
0.6 (0.3 to 1.2) |
0.5 (0.2 to 1.5) |
0.4 (0.2 to 0.8) |
| Marital status | ||||||||||||||
| Single | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
| Married | 1.9 (1.1 to 3.3) |
1.7 (1.0 to 3.0) |
2.0 (1.2 to 3.5) |
2.0 (1.1 to 3.7) |
0.6 (0.3 to 1.0) |
2.4 (1.3 to 4.3) |
0.5 (0.3 to 1.0) |
1.6 (0.9 to 2.8) |
1.5 (0.5 to 4.5) |
1.9 (0.6 to 6.9) |
0.3 (0.1 to 0.6) |
1.9 (0.7 to 5.3) |
1.0 (0.2 to 4.5) |
0.2 (0.1 to 0.5) |
| Wealth status | ||||||||||||||
| Poor | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
| Middle | 1.8 (1.1 to 3.0) |
2.0 (1.2 to 3.3) |
2.2 (1.3 to 3.6) |
1.9 (1.1 to 3.2) |
1.3 (0.8 to 2.2) |
1.9 (1.2 to 3.2) |
1.3 (0.8 to 2.2) |
1.5 (0.9 to 2.6) |
2.7 (1.3 to 5.6) |
2.6 (1.2 to 5.9) |
1.4 (0.6 to 3.3) |
1.8 (0.9 to 3.4) |
1.7 (0.5 to 5.4) |
0.9 (0.4 to 2.1) |
| Rich | 1.3 (0.8 to 2.0) |
1.2 (0.7 to 1.8) |
1.2 (0.8 to 1.9) |
1.1 (0.7 to 1.8) |
0.4 (0.2 to 0.7) |
0.8 (0.5 to 1.3) |
0.2 (0.1 to 0.3) |
0.6 (0.4 to 0.9) |
1.1 (1.5 to 2.4) |
1.3 (0.6 to 2.9) |
0.3 (0.1 to 1.1) |
0.4 (0.2 to 0.9) |
1.2 (0.4 to 3.6) |
0.1 (0.0 to 0.4) |
| Parity | ||||||||||||||
| Primiparous | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
| Para 2–3 | 0.9 (0.6 to 1.5) |
1.1 (0.6 to 1.8) |
1.1 (0.6 to 1.7) |
1.1 (0.6 to 1.8) |
1.6 (0.9 to 2.8) |
1.7 (1.0 to 2.9) |
2.0 (1.1 to 3.6) |
1.9 (1.1 to 3.2) |
1.1 (0.5 to 2.7) |
0.9 (0.3 to 2.3) |
0.9 (0.3 to 2.6) |
1.5 (0.7 to 3.3) |
1.9 (0.5 to 6.8) |
2.7 (1.0 to 7.6) |
| Para 4+ | 0.7 (0.4 to 1.2) |
0.9 (0.5 to 1.6) |
0.9 (0.5 to 1.6) |
1.1 (0.6 to 1.9) |
2.2 (0.6 to 2.2) |
2.3 (1.3 to 4.0) |
1.6 (0.8 to 3.1) |
2.5 (1.4 to 4.5) |
1.9 (0.7 to 5.2) |
0.9 (0.3 to 2.7) |
0.9 (0.3 to 3.1) |
2.1 (0.9 to 5.1) |
1.0 (0.2 to 4.9) |
2.8 (0.9 to 8.4) |
Predictor variables mutually adjusted for each other.
ANC, antenatal care; PNC, postnatal care; ref., reference.