Table 3.
Multivariable model of association between explanatory variables and probable PTSD.
|
T1 |
T2 |
T3 |
||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Odds ratio (95% CI) | P-value | Odds ratio (95% CI) | P-value | Odds ratio (95% CI) | P-value | |
| PERSONAL FACTORS | ||||||
| Gender | F(2, 1.7e+07) = 2.09, p = 0.12 | F(2, 1.9e+06) = 1.83, p = 0.16 | F(2,498,519.7)=1.38, p = 0.25 | |||
| Male (i) | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
| Female | 1.41 (0.98–2.04) |
0.06 | 1.33 (0.99–1.77) |
0.056 | 0.75 (0.50–1.06) |
0.10 |
| Other/prefer not to say | 0.79 (0.21–2.96) |
0.73 | 1.29 (0.59–2.82) |
0.52 | 0.90 (0.21–3.79) |
0.88 |
| Age | F(4, 1.2e+06) = 6.91, p<0.001 | F(4, 2.2e+06) = 6.12, p<0.001 | F(4,67,237.7)=0.89, p = 0.47 | |||
| 16–30 (i) | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
| 31–40 | 0.83 (0.58–1.20) |
0.33 | 0.89 (0.67–1.19) |
0.43 | 0.69 (0.43–1.09) |
0.11 |
| 41–50 | 0.60 (0.42–0.86) |
0.006 | 0.71 (0.53–0.93) |
0.015 | 0.75 (0.49–1.15 |
0.19 |
| 51–60 | 0.53 (0.37–0.75) |
<0.001 | 0.67 (0.51–0.88) |
0.004 | 0.74 (0.49–1.12) |
0.16 |
| 61 and over | 0.32 (0.19–0.53) |
<0.001 | 0.43 (0.29–0.63) |
<0.001 | 0.63 (0.38–1.06) |
0.083 |
| Ethnicity | F(3, 2,208,925.4) = 3.98, p = 0.008 | F(3,37,585.0)=0.24, p = 0.87 | ||||
| White (i) | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||
| Mixed/Multiple ethnic | 1.36 (0.76–2.44) |
0.30 | 0.76 (0.35–1.65) |
0.48 | ||
| Asian/Asian British | 1.30 (0.86–1.96) |
0.21 | 1.07 (0.50–2.27) |
0.87 | ||
| Black/African/Caribbean | 1.72 (1.24–2.38) |
0.001 | 1.13 (0.64–1.98) |
0.68 | ||
| UK region | F(10, 998,003.8) = 1.41, p = 0.17 | F(10, 2.5e+06) = 1.34, p = 0.20 | F(10,146,571.6)=1.60, p = 0.099 | |||
| South East (i) | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
| South West | 0.98 (0.67–1.44) |
0.91 | 0.92 (0.69–1.24) |
0.60 | 0.57 (0.37–0.87) |
0.010 |
| London | 1.28 (0.87–1.89) |
0.21 | 0.85 (0.64–1.12) |
0.24 | 0.89 (0.60–1.30) |
0.54 |
| East Midlands | 1.56 (1.06–2.31) |
0.025 | 0.80 (0.58–1.12) |
0.19 | 0.94 (0.61–1.46) |
0.78 |
| East of England | 1.02 (0.66–1.58 |
0.92 | 0.74 (0.53–1.03) |
0.077 | 0.99 (0.64–1.51) |
0.95 |
| North West | 0.88 (0.61- 1.26) |
0.48 | 0.98 (0.73–1.31) |
0.90 | 0.70 (0.46–1.08) |
0.11 |
| North East | 1.05 (0.67–1.66) |
0.82 | 0.91 (0.67–1.24) |
0.55 | 0.61 (0.40–0.94) |
0.024 |
| West Midlands | 1.39 (0.95–2.03 |
0.09 | 1.00 (0.73–1.37) |
0.99 | 0.88 (0.58–1.35) |
0.57 |
| Scotland | 1.07 (0.70–1.63 |
0.74 | 0.98 (0.72–1.33) |
0.90 | 0.72 (0.46–1.13) |
0.16 |
| Wales | 0.98 (0.58–1.66) |
0.94 | 0.58 (0.38–0.88) |
0.010 | 0.78 (0.47–1.31) |
0.35 |
| Northern Ireland | 1.72 (0.82–3.62) |
0.15 | 0.65 (0.40–1.07) |
0.09 | 1.66 (0.73–3.77) |
0.23 |
| Professional qualification | F(3, 27,417.4) = 2.12, p = 0.096 | F(3, 14,277.6) = 0.23, p = 0.87 | F(3,27,274.4)=0.29, p = 0.84 | |||
| RN-Adult nurse (i) | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
| RN other/Midwives/HVs | 0.65 (0.45–0.94) |
0.023 | 1.07 (0.83–1.38) |
0.62 | 0.99 (0.67–1.48) |
0.98 |
| HCA/ nursing associate/ trainee | 0.36 (0.07–1.81) |
0.21 | 1.35 (0.42–4.27) |
0.61 | 0.47 (0.09–2.42) |
0.37 |
| Student nurse/ midwife | 0.43 (0.09–1.99) |
0.28 | 1.50 (0.46–4.88) |
0.50 | 0.59 (0.12–2.93) |
0.52 |
| Caring responsibilities | F(2, 301,685.9) = 3.84, p = 0.021 | F(2, 746,013.4) = 1.58, p = 0.21 | F(2,23,277.6)=3.97, p = 0.019 | |||
| Yes-sole carer | 1.51 (1.08–2.09) |
0.015 | 1.25 (0.98–1.59) |
0.076 | 1.58 (1.11–2.25) |
0.012 |
| Yes‑but not sole carer | 1.26 (1.01–1.58) |
0.041 | 1.05 (0.88–1.24) |
0.60 | 1.26 (0.99–1.59) |
0.056 |
| No (i) | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
| WORKPLACE FACTORS | ||||||
| Health at risk due to clinical role | F(2, 10,572.7) = 5.91, p = 0.003 | F(2, 7886.3) = 16.10, p<0.001 | ||||
| Strongly disagree/disagree | 1.29 (0.86–1.96) |
0.22 | 1.34 (1.01–1.79) |
0.040 | ||
| Neither agree/ disagree (i) | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||
| Strongly agree/agree | 1.68 (1.22–2.32) |
0.001 | 1.84 (1.47–2.31) |
<0.001 | ||
| Personal COVID-19 infection | F(2,2434.4)=7.55, p<0.001 | |||||
| Yes – symptomatic | 1.58 (1.25–2.00) |
<0.001 | ||||
| Yes- asymptomatic | 1.40 (0.87–2.25) |
0.17 | ||||
| No (i) | 1.00 | |||||
| Employed by NHS† | 1.37 (1.03–1.80) |
0.028 | 1.16 (0.94–1.42) |
0.17 | 0.89 (0.67–1.18) |
0.40 |
| NHS banding (or equivalent) | F(7, 108,131.0) = 1.32, p = 0.24 | F(7,,103,269.3) = 1.01, p = 0.42 | F(7,75,401.2)=1.28, p = 0.25 | |||
| Not banded | 2.78 (0.57–13.65) |
0.21 | 0.65 (0.19–2.23) |
0.49 | 0.57 (0.10–3.35) |
0.54 |
| HCA/ nursing associate | 2.80 (0.59–13.39) |
0.20 | 0.89 (0.29–2.75) |
0.84 | 1.60 (0.34–7.60) |
0.56 |
| Staff nurse (i) | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
| Senior staff nurse | 0.88 (0.67–1.15) |
0.35 | 1.01 (0.83–1.22) |
0.95 | 0.91 (0.69–1.20) |
0.50 |
| Charge nurse | 0.73 (0.54–0.98) |
0.038 | 0.89 (0.72–1.11) |
0.31 | 0.75 (0.56–1.02) |
0.067 |
| Matron | 0.70 (0.47–1.05) |
0.087 | 0.72 (0.52–1.00) |
0.053 | 0.71 (0.46–1.09) |
0.12 |
| Senior nurse | 0.60 (0.34–1.06) |
0.078 | 0.93 (0.56–1.54) |
0.78 | 0.57 (0.29–1.14) |
0.11 |
| Very senior nurse | 0.71 (0.36–1.39) |
0.32 | 0.65 (0.36–1.17) |
0.15 | 0.57 (0.27–1.19) |
0.13 |
| Clinical speciality* | F(11, 586,562.0) = 1.31, p = 0.021 | F(11, 765,173.0) = 4.67, p<0.001 | F(11, 147,539.3)=1.70, p = 0.066 | |||
| Acute/emergency hospital care(i) | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
| Critical care/operating theatres | 1.14 (0.79–1.64) |
0.50 | 1.51 (1.18–1.92) |
0.001 | 1.31 (0.94–1.82) |
0.11 |
| Learning disabilities | 0.83 (0.20–3.43) |
0.79 | 0.54 (0.20–1.41) |
0.21 | 0.67 (0.16–2.85) |
0.59 |
| Mental health | 0.78 (0.43–1.40) |
0.41 | 0.71 (0.48–1.04) |
0.075 | 0.85 (0.45–1.60) |
0.61 |
| Midwifery/Paediatrics | 0.76 (0.40–1.44) |
0.40 | 0.62 (0.39–1.01) |
0.056 | 0.47 (0.22–0.99) |
0.047 |
| Palliative care | 0.98 (0.48–2.01) |
0.95 | 1.02 (0.64–1.61) |
0.95 | 1.18 (0.62–2.22) |
0.61 |
| Outpatients | 0.85 (0.54–1.36) |
0.50 | 0.73 (0.45–1.18) |
0.20 | 0.78 (0.39–1.53) |
0.47 |
| Care/nursing Home | 1.12 (0.57–2.22) |
0.74 | 1.64 (1.03–2.60) |
0.036 | 1.39 (0.72–2.69) |
0.33 |
| Community or primary care | 0.93 (0.68–1.27) |
0.65 | 0.72 (0.57–0.91) |
0.006 | 0.73 (0.52–1.02) |
0.065 |
| Education/ higher education | 1.27 (0.69–2.32) |
0.45 | 0.82 (0.42–1.57) |
0.54 | 0.58 (0.26–1.31) |
0.19 |
| Research | 0.48 (0.30–0.76) |
0.002 | 0.71 (0.46–1.09) |
0.12 | 0.73 (0.43–1.23) |
0.23 |
| Other | 0.90 (0.65–1.26) |
0.55 | 0.70 (0.54–0.90) |
0.006 | 0.90 (0.62–1.30) |
0.57 |
| Redeployment | F(2, 379,222.6) = 4.09, p = 0.017 | F(2, 3.1e+06) = 7.76, p<0.001 | F(2,26,653.7)=1.25, p = 0.29 | |||
| Not redeployed (i) | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
| Redeployed -adequate training | 0.85 (0.62–1.16) |
0.31 | 1.01 (0.78–1.31) |
0.93 | 0.84 (0.56–1.25) |
0.39 |
| Redeployed-inadequate/ no training | 1.37 (1.06–1.77) |
0.017 | 1.50 (1.22–1.84) |
<0.001 | 1.17 (0.89–1.55) |
0.26 |
| Previously provided clinical care in pandemic† | 1.10 (0.87–1.39) |
0.43 | 1.19 (1.00–1.41) |
0.047 | 1.44 (1.14–1.82) |
0.002 |
| Correct PPE always available | F(2, 148,518.3) = 6.84, p = 0.001 | F(2, 327,800.1) = 10.54, p<0.001 | F(2,38,969.5)=7.42, p<0.001 | |||
| Strongly agree/agree | 0.97 (0.74–1.28) |
0.84 | 0.82 (0.67–1.00) |
0.048 | 0.74 (0.54–1.01) |
0.056 |
| Neither agree/ disagree (i) | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
| Disagree/strongly disagree | 1.49 (1.15–1.93) |
<0.001 | 1.34 (1.07–1.69) |
0.012 | 1.26 (0.88–1.80) |
0.20 |
| Confidence in COVID-19 IPC training | F(3, 264,019.8) = 3.98, p = 0.008 | F(3, 1.1e+06) = 11.45, p<0.001 | F(3,63,431.9)=3.35, p = 0.018 | |||
| Not confident at all/somewhat not confident | 1.48 (1.11–1.97) |
0.007 | 1.29 (1.03–1.61) |
0.024 | 1.51 (1.07–2.13) |
0.020 |
| Neither not confident/ confident (i) | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
| Somewhat/ very confident | 0.96 (0.70–1.32) |
0.81 | 0.72 (0.57–0.90) |
0.004 | 1.09 (0.78–1.52) |
0.63 |
| Not received training | 1.23 (0.83–1.82) |
0.30 | 0.84 (0.60–1.17) |
0.30 | 1.65 (1.07–2.53) |
0.023 |
| Prepared to provide care to COVID-19 patients | F(2, 701,907.5) = 8.03, p<0.001 | F(2, 147,563.2) = 13.47, p<0.001 | F(2,21,028.1)=19.80, p<0.001 | |||
| Completely/somewhat unprepared | 1.60 (1.16–2.22) |
0.005 | 1.25 (0.98–1.59) |
0.066 | 1.32 (0.95–1.84) |
0.096 |
| Neither unprepared/ prepared (i) | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
| Somewhat/very prepared | 1.01 (0.70–1.44) |
0.96 | 0.75 (0.59–0.96) |
0.024 | 0.56 (0.40–0.80) |
0.001 |
| Care quality for non-COVID-19 patients | F(2, 16,636.2) = 7.11, p<0.001 | F(2, 82,544.4) = 0.95, p = 0.39 | F(2,29,086.9)=3.37, p = 0.034 | |||
| Significantly/slightly worse | 1.47 (1.19–1.82) |
<0.001 | 1.12 (0.95–1.32) |
0.17 | 1.34 (1.07–1.69) |
0.012 |
| Same as before (i) | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
| Significantly/slightly better | 0.98 (0.67–1.42) |
0.91 | 1.02 (0.79–1.31) |
0.88 | 1.30 (0.90–1.89) |
0.16 |
| Mental health first aid training† | 0.86 (0.66–1.12) |
0.26 | 0.87 (0.71–1.07) |
0.19 | 0.73 (0.54–0.97) |
0.031 |
| Psuedo R2 | 0.11 | 0.11 | 0.13 | |||
| C-Statistic (AUC) | 0.72 | 0.72 | 0.74 | |||
Note: the p-value for the overall effect of variables with three or more categories is shown in brackets in each row containing the variable name.
i- Index category. Where index category is not specified, the index category is a negative response.
† yes, compared with no.
*- Clinical speciality on 1st February 2020 used for time-point one; Clinical speciality during pandemic used for time-points two and three.
AUC- Area Under Curve; CI- confidence interval; IPC- Infection prevention and control; HCA- Healthcare assistant; HV- Health visitor; NHS- National health service; PPE- personal protective equipment; RN- Registered nurse.