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. 2021 Dec 16;11:23126. doi: 10.1038/s41598-021-02447-0

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© The Author(s) 2021

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Phylogenomic estimation of the evolutionary history of colobognath millipedes. Super-elongation (> 180 segments) is well known from the order Siphonophorida, including Illacme plenipes with 192 segments and 750 legs, but it has independently evolved in the Australian order Polyzoniida with Eumillipes persephone bearing up to 1,306 legs and 330 segments. This feature (dark branches) has evolved between two and four times in diplopods based on a character state reconstruction using parsimony. Maximum likelihood phylogeny of 312 orthologous sequences with Polydesmida, Stemmiulida, Chordeumatida, Spirostreptida, and Sphaerotheriida as outgroup taxa. Julida, Spirobolida, and other diplopod orders omitted from the analysis. Support values on nodes are bootstrap supports. Numbers in parentheses after species names are the maximum segment count for the taxon. Species with super-elongation present denoted in bold. Millipede silhouettes sized relative to one other. Diagram created with Adobe Illustrator 2021 (adobe.com/products/illustrator.html).