. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2022 Dec 17.

Published in final edited form as: J Toxicol Environ Health B Crit Rev. 2021 Jun 17;24(5):173–222. doi: 10.1080/10937404.2021.1936319

Table 4.

Summary of gas-phase releases (emission rates and concentrations) from additive manufacturing machines by process type.

Room (m³)	ACH (hr⁻¹)	Feedstock^a	Scenario^b	Sampler^c	Specifics^d	Analysis^e	Analyte^f	$\bar{X} C (μ g / m^{3})$ ^g	ER (mg/min)	Cit.^h
Binder jetting AM process category
157	6	Gypsum	Cover shut	PID	10.6 eV	n/a	TVOC	1725 (P)	22–27	A
Material extrusion AM process category
28	NR	PLA	3-DP	PID	10.6 eV	n/a	TVOC	102 480 (P)		B
544	NR	PLA	3-DP	PID	10.6 eV	n/a	TVOC	408 734 (P)
28	NR	PLA	3-DP	PID	10.6 eV	n/a	TVOC	578 1010 (P)
27	NR	ABS	3-DP	PID	10.6 eV	n/a	TVOC	186 333 (P)
74	NR	ABS	3-DP	PID	10.6 eV	n/a	TVOC	172 365 (P)
57	NR	Nylon	3-DP	PID	10.6 eV	n/a	TVOC	2570 3534 (P)
34	NR	PC	3-DP	PID	10.6 eV	n/a	TVOC	895 6504 (P)
180	2	PLA	3-DP	PID	10.6 eV	n/a	TVOC	33–38		C
				TD Tube	Tenax^®	GC-MS	MM	0.7
30	NR	PLA	3-DP	PID	10.6 eV	n/a	TVOC	92–216
			3-DP	TD Tube	Tenax^®	GC-MS	MM	5.5–19
81	5	ABS, PLA	3-DP	Cartridge	Silica gel	LC-MS	Formaldehyde	2–3		D
40	NR	ABS	AVP	TD tube	SVI	GC-MS	Acetone	100		E
				PID	10.6 eV	n/a	TVOC	9.0 × 10⁵
40	NR	PLA	CVP Pouring CHCl₃	PID	10.6 eV	n/a	TVOC	2.4 × 10⁵
			CVP Brushing CHCl₃	PID	10.6 eV	n/a	TVOC	1.0 × 10⁵–2.0 × 10⁵
66	NR	ABS, PC	FDM^™	PID	10.6 eV	n/a	TVOC		19	F
				Gas sensor	SC	n/a	Ozone	37
66	NR	ABS, PC Morning	FDM^™	TD tube	SVI	GC-MS	Acetone	0.6 × 10⁴–3.3 × 10⁴
66	NR	ABS, PC Afternoon	FDM^™	TD tube	SVI	GC-MS	Acetone	0.3 × 10⁴–1.6 × 10⁴
66	NR	Ultem^®	FDM^™	PID	10.6 eV	n/a	TVOC		94
				Gas sensor	SC	n/a	Ozone	43
				TD tube	SVI	GC-MS	Acetone	400
40	NR	ABS, PLA	3-DP (n = 7)	PID	10.6 eV	n/a	TVOC		3300	G
				TD tube	SVI	GC-MS	Acetone	98.7
				TD tube	SVI	GC-MS	IPA	122.2
76	NR	ABS	3-DP	PID	10.6 eV	n/a	TVOC		120
				TD tube	SVI	GC-MS	Acetone	457
				TD tube	SVI	GC-MS	Benzene	8.2
				TD tube	SVI	GC-MS	Hexane	7.7
				TD tube	SVI	GC-MS	IPA	4637
466	2	PLA	Sheer 3-DP	PID	10.6 eV	n/a	TVOC		16–31
			Sheer 3-DP Malfunction	PID	10.6 eV	n/a	TVOC		23
320	NR	PLA	3-DP	PID	10.6 eV	n/a	TVOC		2–44
45	NR	PLA	3-DP	PID	10.6 eV	n/a	TVOC		8–11
				TD tube	SVI	GC-MS	Acetaldehyde	43.0–43.1
				TD tube	SVI	GC-MS	Acetone	222–273
				TD tube	SVI	GC-MS	IPA	2.3 × 10⁴–4.1 × 10⁴
				TD tube	SVI	GC-MS	MC	6.3–9.2
195	NR	PLA EasyWood^™	3-DP	TD Tube	Tenax^® TA	GC-MS	Decanal	8		H
				TD Tube	Tenax^® TA	GC-MS	DCPS	8
				TD Tube	Tenax^® TA	GC-MS	BEA	16
				TD Tube	Tenax^® TA	GC-MS	PG	17
				TD Tube	Tenax^® TA	GC-MS	TVOC (ΣVOC_i)	117
				Sorbent tube	DNPH	HPLC-UV	Formaldehyde	11
				Sorbent tube	DNPH	HPLC-UV	Acetone	17
				Sorbent tube	DNPH	HPLC-UV	Butanone	15
195	NR	PLA-CF	3-DP	TD Tube	Tenax^® TA	GC-MS	DCPS	11
				TD Tube	Tenax^® TA	GC-MS	Decanal	15
				TD Tube	Tenax^® TA	GC-MS	BEA	44
				TD Tube	Tenax^® TA	GC-MS	Benzoic acid	47
				TD Tube	Tenax^® TA	GC-MS	TVOC (ΣVOC_i)	180
				Sorbent tube	DNPH	HPLC-UV	Formaldehyde	14
				Sorbent tube	DNPH	HPLC-UV	Acetone	20
				Sorbent tube	DNPH	HPLC-UV	Butanone	14
195	NR	ABS-FR	3-DP	TD Tube	Tenax^® TA	GC-MS	Decanal	23
				TD Tube	Tenax^® TA	GC-MS	NDEE	23
				TD Tube	Tenax^® TA	GC-MS	BEA	26
				TD Tube	Tenax^® TA	GC-MS	I. Myristate	34
				TD Tube	Tenax^® TA	GC-MS	TVOC (ΣVOC_i)	338
195	NR	ABS-FR	3-DP	Sorbent tube	DNPH	HPLC-UV	Formaldehyde	18
				Sorbent tube	DNPH	HPLC-UV	Acetaldehyde	8
				Sorbent tube	DNPH	HPLC-UV	Acetone	74
				Sorbent tube	DNPH	HPLC-UV	Butanone	8
NR	NR	ABS	3-DP Inside machine	Sorbent tube	Charcoal	GC-MS	Toluene	16		I
				Sorbent tube	Charcoal	GC-MS	Styrene	69
				Sorbent tube	Charcoal	GC-MS	TVOC	391
NR	NR	PLA	3-DP Inside machine	Sorbent tube	Charcoal	GC-MS	Toluene	26
				Sorbent tube	Charcoal	GC-MS	Styrene	21
				Sorbent tube	Charcoal	GC-MS	TVOC	255
NR	NR	PET	3-DP Inside machine	Sorbent tube	Charcoal	GC-MS	Toluene	11
				Sorbent tube	Charcoal	GC-MS	Styrene	6
				Sorbent tube	Charcoal	GC-MS	TVOC	151
126	NR	PLA	3-DP (n = 5)	TD Tube	Tenax^® TA	GC-MS	Acrylonitrile	7.3		J
				TD Tube	Tenax^® TA	GC-MS	MC	5.7
				TD Tube	Tenax^® TA	GC-MS	Hexane	29.8
				TD Tube	Tenax^® TA	GC-MS	Toluene	6.2
				TD Tube	Tenax^® TA	GC-MS	Xylenes	5.6
14	NR	PLA	3-DP (n = 1)	Sorbent tube	DNPH	HPLC-UV	Formaldehyde	4.9		K
				TD Tube	Sorbent	GC-MS	IPA	190
				TD Tube	Sorbent	GC-MS	Acetone	10
				TD Tube	Sorbent	GC-MS	TVOC	270
14	NR	PLA	3-DP (n = 3)	Sorbent tube	DNPH	HPLC-UV	Formaldehyde	4.5
				TD Tube	Sorbent	GC-MS	IPA	1400
				TD Tube	Sorbent	GC-MS	Acetone	110
				TD Tube	Sorbent	GC-MS	Ethanol	77
				TD Tube	Sorbent	GC-MS	TVOC	1700
355	6.3	ABS	3D-P	Minican	Si-lined	GC-MS	IPA	2260		L
NR	NR	ABS	3D-P Inside machine	OE nose	Dye-based	Digital	Cyclohexanone	Present		M
							Ethyl benzene	Present
							Isobutanol	Present
							Styrene	Present
		PLA	3D-P Inside machine	OE nose	Dye-based	Digital	Acetone
							Isobutanol	Present
							Lactide	Present
							MM	Present
		PETG	3D-P Inside machine	OE nose	Dye-based	Digital	Acetone	Present
							Formaldehyde	Present
							Toluene	Present
Material jetting AM process category
48	NR	VisiJet M2R-CL	Printing	TD Tube	Tenax^®	GC-MS	Iso. acrylate	1325–2076		H
				TD Tube	Tenax^®	GC-MS	2-Furn.	127–164
				TD Tube	Tenax^®	GC-MS	BHT	61–113
				TD Tube	Tenax^®	GC-MS	o-Xylene	64–102
				TD Tube	Tenax^®	GC-MS	TVOC	2001–2872
			Post-processing	TD Tube	Tenax^®	GC-MS	Iso. acrylate	1233
				TD Tube	Tenax^®	GC-MS	BHT	225
				TD Tube	Tenax^®	GC-MS	2-Furan.	112
				TD Tube	Tenax^®	GC-MS	m,p-Xylene	76
				TD Tube	Tenax^®	GC-MS	TVOC	1809
90	0.22 estimated	TangoBlack+, VeroClear	Lid open	PID	10.6 eV	n/a	TVOC		2.8 × 10⁴	F
				TD tube	SVI	GC-MS	Acetaldehyde	54
				TD tube	SVI	GC-MS	Ethanol	1.1 × 10⁴
				Gas sampler	SC	n/a	Ozone	26.3
466	2	TangoBlack+, VeroClear, VeroWhite+	Lid closed	PID	10.6 eV	n/a	TVOC		2.5 × 10⁴–4.5 × 10⁴
				TD tube	SVI	GC-Ms	Acetaldehyde	14–214
				Canister	Evacuated	GC-MS	Ethanol	70.6
				Canister	Evacuated	GC-MS	IPA	149–342
				Canister	Evacuated	GC-MS	MM	4.4
				Gas sensor	SC	n/a	Ozone	9–11
Powder bed fusion AM process category
1176	NR	Nylon-12 Glass filler	Printing	TD Tube	Tenax^®	GC-MS	Siloxanes	27		H
				TD Tube	Tenax^®	GC-MS	TVOC	113
				TD Tube	Tenax^®	GC-MS	Formaldehyde	40
				TD Tube	Tenax^®	GC-MS	Acetaldehyde	42
				IAQ-Calc^™	NDIR	n/a	CO₂	450 ppm
				IAQ-Calc^™	EC	n/a	CO	0.1 ppm
991	NR	Nylon-12 Glass filler	MJF	TD Tube	Tenax^®	GC-MS	Alcohols	223
				TD Tube	Tenax^®	GC-MS	Aliphatic hydrocarbons	59
				TD Tube	Tenax^®	GC-MS	Aromatic hydrocarbons	161
				TD Tube	Tenax^®	GC-MS	TVOC	1114
				TD Tube	Tenax^®	GC-MS	Acetone	41
				IAQ-Calc^™	NDIR	n/a	CO₂	680 ppm
				IAQ-Calc^™	EC	n/a	CO	0.4 ppm
117	NR	Nylon-12	Pre-printing Virgin powder	PID	10.6 eV	n/a	TVOC	872		N
			Pre-printing Recyc. powder	PID	10.6 eV	n/a	TVOC	620
			Printing Virgin powder	PID	10.6 eV	n/a	TVOC	528
			Printing Recyc. powder	PID	10.6 eV	n/a	TVOC	1285
			Post-printing Virgin powder	PID	10.6 eV	n/a	TVOC	803
			Post-printing Recyc. powder	PID	10.6 eV	n/a	TVOC	2410
		Nylon-12	Pre-printing Virgin powder	Gas sensor	NDIR	n/a	CO₂	954 ppm
			Pre-printing Recyc. powder	Gas sensor	NDIR	n/a	CO₂	914 ppm
			Printing Virgin powder	Gas sensor	NDIR	n/a	CO₂	613 ppm
			Printing Recyc. powder	Gas sensor	NDIR	n/a	CO₂	577 ppm
			Post-printing Virgin powder	Gas sensor	NDIR	n/a	CO₂	757 ppm
			Post-printing Recyc. powder	Gas sensor	NDIR	n/a	CO₂	869 ppm
117	NR	Nylon-12	Pre-printing	PID	10.6 eV	n/a	TVOC	872		O
			Printing	PID	10.6 eV	n/a	TVOC	544
			Post-printing	PID	10.6 eV	n/a	TVOC	817
			Pre-printing	Gas sensor	EC	n/a	Formaldehyde	49
			Printing	Gas sensor	EC	n/a	Formaldehyde	32
			Post-printing	Gas sensor	EC	n/a	Formaldehyde	45
117	NR	Nylon-12	Printing	Canister	Evacuated	GC-MS	IPA	442		L
				Canister	Evacuated	GC-MS	Propylene	45
Vat photopolymerization AM process category
NR	NR	Resin	Drilling parts	Badge	Passive	GC-MS	IPA	590		P
55	NR	VarseoWax	Scenario 1 Outside machine <1 m (printing)	TD Tube	Tenax^®	GC-MS	THF alcohol	18		H
				TD Tube	Tenax^®	GC-MS	p-Xylene	13–16
				TD Tube	Tenax^®	GC-MS	MM	136
				TD Tube	Tenax^®	GC-MS	2-BAME	55–63
				TD Tube	Tenax^®	GC-MS	4-M-2-P	3–76
				TD Tube	Tenax^®	GC-MS	TVOC	182–427
				Sorbent tube	DNPH	HPLC-UV	Formaldehyde	12
				Sorbent tube	DNPH	HPLC-UV	Acetone	136
				IAQ-Calc^™	NDIR	n/a	CO₂	550–860 ppm
				IAQ-Calc^™	EC	n/a	CO	0–1.8 ppm
			Part washing	TD Tube	Tenax^®	GC-MS	Ethanol	139
				TD Tube	Tenax^®	GC-MS	IPA	1658
				TD Tube	Tenax^®	GC-MS	TFP	442
				TD Tube	Tenax^®	GC-MS	MM	292
				TD Tube	Tenax^®	GC-MS	4-M-2-P	8139
				TD Tube	Tenax^®	GC-MS	TVOC	11084
155	NR	Grey & Castable resins	Scenario 2 Outside machine <1 m (printing)	TD Tube	Tenax^®	GC-MS	IPA	8–24
				TD Tube	Tenax^®	GC-MS	Acetic acid	28
				TD Tube	Tenax^®	GC-MS	MM	35–93
				TD Tube	Tenax^®	GC-MS	EM	14–34
				TD Tube	Tenax^®	GC-MS	TVOC	84–176
				Sorbent tube	DNPH	HPLC-UV	Acetone	17
				Sorbent tube	DNPH	HPLC-UV	Butanone	22
				IAQ-Calc^™	NDIR	n/a	CO₂	470–650 ppm
NR	NR	White resin	Drilling models	Badge	Passive	GC-MS	IPA	590		P
28	8.6	Epoxy resin	Printing	Impinger	Liquid trap	ISE	Fluorine^*	5.1		L
				Canister	Evacuated	GC-MS	Acetone	582
							IPA	1377
41	NR	MM resin	Printing	PID	10.6 eV	n/a	TVOC	1053		Q
			Curing and washing	PID	10.6 eV	n/a	TVOC	1774

ABS = acrylonitrile butadiene styrene, CF = carbon fiber additive, FR = flame retardant additive, MM = methyl methacrylate, PC = polycarbonate, PET = polyethylene terephthalate, PETG = PET glycol, PLA = polylactic acid

3-DP = desktop-scale fused filament fabrication 3D printer, AVP = acetone vapor polishing task, CVP = chloroform (CHCl₃) vapor polishing task, FDM^™ = industrial-scale fused deposition modeling machine, MJF = multi-jet fusion machine

OE = optoelectronic nose, PID = photoionization detector, TD = thermal desorption

DNPH = 2,4-Dinitrophenylhydrazine-coated silica gel sorbent, EC = electrochemical sensor, eV = electron volt, NDIR = non-dispersive infrared, SC = semiconductor sensor, SVI = soil vapor intrusion

GC = gas chromatography, HPLC = high-performance liquid chromatography, ISE = ion selective electrode, LC = liquid chromatography, MS = mass spectrometry, UV = ultraviolet detector

2-BAME = 2-buteinic acid methyl ester, 2-Furn. = 2-furnapropanoic acid, 4-M-2-P = 4-methyl-2-pentanone, BEA = 2-(2-butoxyethoxy)ethyl acetate, BHT = butylated hydroxytoluene, CO = carbon monoxide, CO₂ = carbon dioxide, DCPS = decamethylcyclopentasiloxane, EM = ethyl methacrylate, I. Myristate = isopropyl myristate, IPA = isopropyl alcohol, Iso. acrylate = isobornyl acrylate, MC = methylene chloride, MM = methyl methacrylate, NDEE = N-[3,4-dimethylphenyl]-ethyl ester, PG = propylene glycol, TFP = tetrahydro-2-furnyl methyl pivalate, THF = tetrahydrofurfyl, TVOC = total volatile organic compounds, TVOC ΣVOC_i = TVOC calculated as sum of all individual VOCs on a sample

P = peak

A = Afshar-Mohajer et al. (2015), McDonnell et al. (2016), C = Steinle (2016), D = Mendes et al. (2017), E = Du Preez et al. (2018b), F = Stefaniak, Johnson, du Preez, Hammond, Wells, Ham, LeBouf, Martin, et al. (2019b), G = Stefaniak, Johnson, du Preez, Hammond, Wells, Ham, LeBouf, Menchaca, et al. (2019c), H = Väisänen et al. (2019), I = Bravi, Murmura, and Santos (2019), J = Youn et al. (2019), K = Chan et al. (2020), L = Zisook et al. (2020), M = Pinheiro et al. (2021), N = Damanhuri, Subki, et al. (2019b), O = Damanhuri, Hariri, et al. (2019a), P = Freiser et al. (2018), Q = Yang and Li (2018)

NR = not reported

total fluorine (aerosol and gas)