Table 1.

Persisting questions on usefulness and methodology of CKD screening programmes

Questions related to the usefulness of CKD screening

Questions related to the methodology of CKD screening

Should CKD screening be used in an asymptomatic population with or without CKD risk factors such as hypertension or diabetes? Are there unique risk factors in some populations we do not know about? Should therapies be initiated in those with mildly impaired eGFR or microalbuminuria? Does earlier treatment improve the prognosis? Are CKD screening programmes cost-effective? Do the potential harms of CKD screening outweigh the benefits? What is the yield of the screening service? What are the implications of CKD screening for public health policy?

Are single measurements sufficient for detecting CKD? Does population screening with serum creatinine and urine protein testing lead to improved outcomes without undue harm? Should screening be conducted in younger age groups without CKD risk factors? What threshold of dipsticks positive proteinuria should be considered relevant for screening? Who should manage screening and subsequent treatment? What tests should be selected for CKD screening? How valid and repeatable is the screening test?

CKD, chronic kidney disease; eGFR, estimated glomerular filtration rate.