Table 9.

Non-rodent animal studies testing core ASD behaviours.

Study	Species	Sexes	Sexes Combined or Separated	Sample Size	Singular/Chronic Dosing	Chronic Timing	Dose (mg/kg)	Route	Treatment Age	Testing Age	Temperature (°C)	Males	Females	Both
Ali 1993 [102]	Rhesus monkey	Females	NA	14	Chronic	Twice daily for 4 consecutive days	1.25, 2.5, 20	i.g.	Varying weights	Same day	NA	NA	20 mg/kg: serotonin behaviour	NA
Ballesta 2016 [98]	Long-tailed macaque	Males	NA	3	Chronic	3 doses at 1-week intervals	1, 1.5, 2	s.c.	3 years	3 years	NA	1 mg/kg: nil. 1.5 mg/kg: increased time spent being groomed	NA	NA
Capurro 1997 [103]	Electric fish	Both	Combined	100	Singular	NA	1, 5	i.m.	5-50g	3 days later	18	NA	NA	Decreased aggression, increased adjacent swimming, longer latency to first (aggressive) bite
Crean 2006 [120]	Rhesus macaque	Males	NA	6	Singular	NA	0.56, 1, 1.78, 2.4	i.m.	6-10 years	6-10 years	23, 27	No effect on stereotypy	NA	NA
Crean 2007 [121]	Rhesus macaque	Males	NA	10	Chronic	Intervals of at least 1 week	1.78, 5	i.m., p.o.	6-10 years	6-11 years	23-27	No effect on stereotypy	NA	NA
Edsinger 2018 [111]	Octopus	Both	Separated	NA	Singular	NA	0.5-0.005	Immersion	9 months	9 months	22	Increased social preference	Increased social preference	NA
Edsinger 2018 [112]	Octopus	Both	Separated	7	Singular	NA	0.5-0.005	Immersion	9 months	9 months	20-23	Increased social preference and exploratory body contact	Increased social preference and exploratory body contact	NA
Goodwin 2013 [122]	Baboon	Males	NA	4	Chronic	5-day intervals	0.32–7.8	i.g.	“Adult” (18.4-33.2kg)	“Adult” (18.4-33.2kg)	NA	No effect on stereotypy	NA	NA
Green 2012 [104]	Zebrafish	Both	Combined	16-24	Singular	NA	80 mg/L	Immersion	5-8 months	5-8 months	25-27	NA	NA	Increased inter-fish distance, decreased duration of proximity
Insel 1989 [283]	Rhesus monkey	Males	NA	9-12	Chronic	Twice daily for 4 consecutive days	2.5, 10	i.m.	“Adult” (7-12kg)	1 hour later	24	Decreased exploration, increased passivity. 10 mg/kg may induce serotonin-syndrome-like features, upright posture and later continuous activity	NA	NA
Study	Species	Sexes	Sexes Combined or Separated	Sample Size	Singular/Chronic Dosing	Chronic Timing	Dose (mg/kg)	Route	Treatment Age	Testing Age	Temperature (°C)	Males	Females	Both
Iravani 2003 [99]	Common marmoset	Both	Combined	26	Chronic	4-7-day intervals	12	p.o.	280-330g	280-330g	25	NA	NA	Decreased motor activity and exploration, vocalisation. Serotonin behaviour
Pitts 2017 [100]	Squirrel monkey	Males	NA	4	Singular	NA	0.03–3.0	i.m.	11-16 years	11-16 years	23	Both enantiomers: increased huddling, decreased activity, increased number of affiliative vocalisations. Lower doses: S(+) MDMA increased huddling, decreased activity, more than did R(−) MDMA. R(−) enantiomer: more affiliative calls at higher doses, than S(+) enantiomer	NA	NA
Ponzoni 2016 [105]	Zebrafish	Both	Combined	20	Singular	NA	0.1–20	i.m.	6-12 months	6-12 months	28	NA	NA	0.5-7.5 mg/kg: increased social preference
Ponzoni 2017 [106]	Zebrafish	Both	Combined	40	Singular	NA	10, 0.5, 0.1	i.m.	6-12 months	6-12 months	28	NA	NA	Increased social preference
Stewart 2011 [107]	Zebrafish	Both	Combined	142	Singular	NA	0.25, 40, 80, 120 mg/L	Immersion	5-7 months	5-7 months	25-27	NA	NA	Dose-dependently decreased time taken to travel to the top of the tank, increased time spent up there, as well as the total number of fish swimming at the top. 40, 80, 120 mg/L: impaired zebrafish habituation
Verrico 2008 [101]	Cynomolgus monkey	Males	NA	4	Chronic	Twice, 1 week apart, over 3 weeks	1.5	p.o.	4-6 years	4-6 years	NA	Increased cognitive rigidity and social vigilance	NA	NA
Verrico 2008 [101]	Cynomolgus monkey	Males	NA	5	Chronic	Once a week for 5 weeks	1.5	i.m.	4-6 years	4-6 years	NA	No effect on cognitive rigidity, increased social vigilance.	NA	NA