Fig. 3.

Closed and open systems: (a) General closed system. Bond symbols $\rightharpoondown$ correspond to vectors of bonds; $\mathcal{C}$, $\mathcal{R}e$ and $\mathcal{O}$ correspond to arrays of C, Re and 0 components; the two $\mathcal{T}\mathcal{F}$ components represent the intervening junction structure comprising bonds, 0 and 1 junctions and TF components. N ^f and N ^r are the forward and reverse stoichiometric matrices. (b) Corresponding block diagram. (c) Addition of the chemostat and flowstat flows V^s to the closed system of Fig. 3 a gives an open system. (d) Corresponding block diagram

a Closed system bond graph

b Closed system block‐diagram

c Open system bond graph

d Open system block diagram