TABLE 2.
Associations between predicted 25(OH)D concentrations, vitamin D intake from foods and supplements, and risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection1
| Predicted 25(OH)D concentrations, quintiles (ng/mL) | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | P-trend | |
| Median, ng/mL | 25.2 | 28.7 | 30.8 | 32.6 | 34.7 | |
| Cases/non-cases | 435/7388 | 368/7468 | 351/7529 | 321/7562 | 293/7600 | |
| Unadjusted | 1 (ref) | 0.84 (0.73, 0.96) | 0.79 (0.69, 0.91) | 0.72 (0.62, 0.84) | 0.65 (0.56, 0.76) | <0.001 |
| MV model 1 | 1 (ref) | 0.86 (0.74, 0.99) | 0.83 (0.71, 0.96) | 0.75 (0.65, 0.88) | 0.70 (0.60, 0.82) | <0.001 |
| MV model 2 | 1 (ref) | 0.81 (0.68, 0.97) | 0.80 (0.65, 0.98) | 0.77 (0.61, 0.97) | 0.75 (0.58, 0.98) | 0.04 |
| MV model 3 | 1 (ref) | 0.81 (0.68, 0.97) | 0.80 (0.65, 0.99) | 0.77 (0.61, 0.98) | 0.76 (0.58, 0.99) | 0.04 |
| Total vitamin D intake, quintiles (IU/d) | ||||||
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | ||
| Median, IU/d | 154 | 520 | 1084 | 1725 | 2576 | |
| Cases/non-cases | 365/7497 | 365/7499 | 352/7504 | 329/7549 | 357/7498 | |
| Unadjusted | 1 (ref) | 1.00 (0.86, 1.16) | 0.96 (0.83, 1.12) | 0.90 (0.77, 1.04) | 0.98 (0.84, 1.14) | 0.44 |
| MV model 1 | 1 (ref) | 1.03 (0.89, 1.19) | 1.04 (0.89, 1.20) | 0.97 (0.83, 1.13) | 1.06 (0.91, 1.23) | 0.75 |
| MV model 2 | 1 (ref) | 1.04 (0.89, 1.20) | 1.05 (0.90, 1.22) | 0.97 (0.84, 1.14) | 1.05 (0.90, 1.22) | 0.87 |
| MV model 3 | 1 (ref) | 1.04 (0.90, 1.21) | 1.05 (0.90, 1.22) | 0.98 (0.84, 1.14) | 1.04 (0.90, 1.22) | 0.91 |
| Vitamin D intake from foods (IU/d) | ||||||
| 0–99.9 | 100–199.9 | 200–299.9 | 300–399.9 | ≥400 | ||
| Median, IU/d | 75.8 | 149 | 238 | 339 | 470 | |
| Cases/non-cases | 282/6459 | 787/16,354 | 458/9265 | 148/3412 | 93/2057 | |
| Unadjusted | 1 (ref) | 1.10 (0.96, 1.27) | 1.13 (0.97, 1.32) | 0.99 (0.81, 1.22) | 1.04 (0.81, 1.32) | 0.98 |
| MV model 1 | 1 (ref) | 1.11 (0.97, 1.28) | 1.15 (0.99, 1.34) | 1.01 (0.82, 1.23) | 1.04 (0.82, 1.33) | 0.93 |
| MV model 2 | 1 (ref) | 1.12 (0.97, 1.28) | 1.16 (0.99, 1.35) | 1.00 (0.82, 1.23) | 1.04 (0.81, 1.32) | 0.98 |
| MV model 3 | 1 (ref) | 1.11 (0.97, 1.28) | 1.15 (0.99, 1.34) | 1.01 (0.82, 1.24) | 1.04 (0.82, 1.32) | 0.95 |
| Vitamin D intake from supplements (IU/d) | ||||||
| 0 | 0.1–399.9 | 400–999.9 | 1000–1999.9 | ≥2000 | ||
| Median, IU/d | 0 | 38 | 607 | 1400 | 2235 | |
| Cases/non-cases | 213/4185 | 389/7923 | 380/8286 | 436/9608 | 350/7545 | |
| Unadjusted | 1 (ref) | 0.96 (0.81, 1.14) | 0.90 (0.76, 1.07) | 0.89 (0.75, 1.05) | 0.91 (0.77, 1.09) | 0.26 |
| MV model 1 | 1 (ref) | 0.97 (0.82, 1.15) | 0.96 (0.81, 1.14) | 0.96 (0.81, 1.14) | 0.99 (0.83, 1.18) | 0.98 |
| MV model 2 | 1 (ref) | 0.97 (0.82, 1.16) | 0.97 (0.81, 1.15) | 0.97 (0.82, 1.15) | 0.98 (0.82, 1.17) | 0.96 |
| MV model 3 | 1 (ref) | 0.98 (0.82, 1.16) | 0.97 (0.81, 1.15) | 0.97 (0.82, 1.15) | 0.98 (0.82, 1.17) | 0.93 |
Logistic regression models were used in the analysis. The number of participants included in the analysis was 39,315, and the number of participants who reported a positive SARS-CoV-2 infection was 1768. Model 1 was adjusted for age, White race, smoking pack-years (0, 0.1–10.0, 10.1–20.0, >20.0), and the Alternate Healthy Eating Index (quintiles). Vitamin D intakes from foods and supplements were mutually adjusted. Model 2 was further adjusted for BMI (kg/m2; <22.5, 22.5–24.9, 25.0–27.4, 27.5–29.9, 30–34.9, ≥35.0), physical activity (quintiles), and alcohol intake (0, 0.1–5.0, 5.1–10.0, >10 g/d). Model 3 was further adjusted for being a frontline health care worker; chronic comorbidities including hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, diabetes, heart disease, cancer, and asthma; and 2010 Census tract median income (quintiles). P-trend was evaluated using the median value in each category as a continuous variable. MV, multivariable; ref, reference; SARS-CoV-2, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2; 25(OH)D, 25-hydroxyvitamin D.