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. 2021 Dec 8;12:771551. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.771551

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Copyright © 2021 Yang, Peng, Feng, Xu, Feng, Cao, Chen, Chen, Cao, Yang and Jie

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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DC-derived EVs may stimulate both CD8⁺ and CD4⁺ T cells by direct and indirect routes. A route for DC EVs stimulation of T cells occurs directly via the expression of MHC-I, MHC-II and costimulatory molecules on the surface of it. The indirect way stimulation of T cells occurs via bystander DCs through two mechanisms. The first way involves EVs internalization and transfer of antigen-MHC complex. The other way called cross-dressing involves antigen-MHC complex direct transfer to DC surface. Additionally, DC EVs have been shown to possess NKG2D-L and the IL-15/IL-15Rα complex, which can result in NK activation.