Table 1. Background texts.
| Publication | Description of paper | Emotional stimuli | Body location(s) measured | Self-report tool details | Subject area (psych; medic/physiol) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Anderson [55] | Investigating startle blink responses (measured by EMG) during affective picture viewing in psychopaths, and ERP | Images | Eye(blink)/face | Psych/physiology | |
| Baldaro [56] | Used films, measuring cardiac, respiratory sinus arrythmia (RSA), and EGG measurement (electrogastrogram) | Films | Heart; respiration rate; RSA; gut | Psych/physiology | |
| Bernat [57] | Emotional pictures used, measuring cardiac, respiratory, facial movements, SCR | Images; startle probe | Respiratory; skin; heart; eye(blink)/face | Psych/physiology | |
| Bradley [58] | IAPS used as emotional stimuli, with startle probe used in half of trials, measuring heart rate, skin conductance, activity over the facial corrugator, zygomatic, and orbicularis oculi muscles | Images; startle probe | Skin; heart; eye(blink)/face | Psych/physiology | |
| Breuninger [52] | Used VR stress stimulus with HR and SC as physiological responses (after the VR simulation), with some other self-reports on heart intensity and sweating etc. | Virtual Reality (VR) | Skin; heart; self-reports on heart and sweating | Physio measures and self-report of same locations | Psych/physiology/medic |
| Chaplin [59] | Used "scripts" using the Scene Construction Questionnaire, which were played in a laboratory setting. One script was "stressful", another related to drug/alcohol addiction and the third was a neutral control. Used the "Behavioural Arousal Scale" (BAS) and self-report to measure outcomes | Stressful "scripts" | Self-report/behavioural observation (using BAS): respiratory, skin, muscles, head, gut, eye(tears) | Measures taken during the session | Psych/medic |
| Chaplin [60] | Used "scripts" using the Scene Construction Questionnaire, which were played to them in a laboratory setting. One script was "stressful", another related to drug/alcohol addiction and the third was a neutral control. Used the "Behavioural Observation Scale" (BOS) (involving muscle twitching, muscle tremor, restlessness, muscle tension, muscle ache, headache, quickened breathing, yawning, talking ⁄ facial movements, crying, sweating, and stomach ⁄ abdominal changes), blood pressure, heart rate) | Stressful "scripts" | Heart; self-report (BOS): respiratory, skin, eyes/face, gut, head | BOS: immediate measurement by independent rater. N.B: study meets inclusion criterion for body areas recorded, but data are used as a compound measure, with no specific reporting on locations | Psych/physio/medic |
| Codispoti [61] | Using emotional images with acoustic startle probe, measured eyeblink response (EMG), heart rate and skin conductance | Images; startle probe | Skin; heart; eye(blink)/face | Psych/physiology | |
| Codispoti [62] | Using pleasant, unpleasant, high arousal films, measured heart rate, respiratory sinus arrhythmia, skin conductance, EMG | Films | Heart; RSA; skin; eye(blink)/face | Psych/physiology | |
| Davis [63] | A range of image types (pleasant and unpleasant) used, measuring heart activity, respiratory and GSR | Images | Respiratory; skin; heart | Psych/physiology | |
| Dimberg [64] | Used facial affect images, measuring skin conductance response (SCR), EMG and HR | Facial images | Skin; heart; eye(blink)/face | Psych/physiology | |
| Dunn [12] | Used IAPS stimuli, with ratings of arousal and valence. Physiological: heart rate change (deceleration). Schandry task was tested separately | Images | Heart | Psych/physiology | |
| Durlik [65] | Whether high levels of anticipation regarding a speech delivered by participants would be associated with high IA (measured by Schandry) | Stress task | Heart | Psych/physiology | |
| Edelmann [53] | During stressful situations, heart rate, skin conductance, and face and neck temperatures were recorded, along with self-report for within 3 categories relevant to social phobia (racing heart, sweaty hands and body heat) | Stress task | Skin; heart; face; self-report: includes hands | Self-report locations and physiological measures of same locations. No immediate responses apparent | Psych/physio/medic |
| Fairclough [66] | Changing levels of anxiety and measuring heartbeat detection (two-choice Whitehead paradigm) performance | Stress task | Heart | Psych/physiology | |
| Foerster [67] | Several stressful tasks, measuring cardiovascular activity, SCR, respiratory activity, eyeblink | Stress task | Respiratory; skin; heart; eye(blink)/facial | Psych/physiology | |
| Frazier [68] | Whether changes in breathing-related heart changes (RSA) are related to emotional changes (arousal, valence) | Films | Heart; RSA; skin | Psych/physiology | |
| Füstös [69] | Investigated whether interoceptive awareness (measured by Schandry) helps to improve emotion regulation for negative stimuli (IAPS), using self-report/subjective measures (SAM) and physiological measures (EEG, ECG) | Images | Heart | Psych/physiology | |
| Gomez [70] | Viewing emotional images and measuring aspects of heart activity (HR, BP, stroke volume, cardiac output, and total peripheral resistance) | Images | Heart | Psych/physiology | |
| Hackford [71] | This research investigated whether an upright walking posture could change the impact of emotional stressors (Trier Social Stress Test) on emotional outcomes, and physiological states (BP, GSR, skin temperature) | Stress task | Skin; heart | Psych/physiology | |
| Hare [72] | Images shown, measuring cardiac, respiratory, eye movements and SCR | Images | Respiratory; skin; heart; eye(blink)/facial | Psych/physiology | |
| Hastings [73] | Investigated coherence between subjective and physiological (heart rate) measurements, using emotional films as stimuli and taking ECG recordings | Films | Heart | Psych/physiology | |
| Hawk [74] | Using emotional sounds (hums, grunts etc.) as stimuli, facial responses of participants were measured | Sounds | Eye(blink)/face | Psych/physiology | |
| Hilmert [75] | Using stressors (e.g., public speaking) as emotional stimuli, measuring cardiovascular responses | Stress task | Heart | Psych/physiology | |
| Kim [76] | Using emotional pictures and music to elicit emotional responses in different physiological systems. Electromyography recordings for the zygomaticus major and corrugator supercilii were measured along with heart rate and skin conductance level | Images; music | Eye(blink)/face; skin; heart | Psych/physiology | |
| Klorman [77] | Used images, measuring heart activity, skin conductance, respiratory changes and eye movements | Images | Respiratory; skin; heart; eye(blink)/facial | Psych/physiology | |
| Klorman [78] | Emotional pictures used, measuring cardiac, respiratory and SCR | Images | Respiratory; skin; heart | Psych/physiology | |
| Korb [79] | Facial mimicry following presentation of emotional face stimuli, measuring facial muscle movement | Facial images/film | Face | Psych/physiology | |
| Krause [80] | Used respiratory restriction and electric shock as emotional stimuli, along with an approach stimulus (i.e., indicating the approaching threat), measuring skin conductance, changes in respiration, startle response (eyeblink) and heart rate deceleration | Resistive respiratory load; electric shock; approach stimulus; startle probe | Respiratory; skin; heart; eye(blink)/facial | Psych/physiology | |
| Kreibig [81] | Review of ANS activity following emotional stimuli for the cardiac, respiratory systems, and skin conductance | Numerous | Respiratory; skin; heart | Psych/physiology | |
| Kreibig [82] | Investigated emotional states in relation to HR, BP, skin conductance, respiration changes, finger temperature, blood volume waveform, finding physiological differentiation by emotion type | Films | Respiratory; skin; heart | Psych/physiology |
|
| Kreibig [83] | Used films, measuring cardiac, respiratory and skin responses, plus facial movements | Films; startle probe | Respiratory; skin; heart; eye(blink)/facial | Psych/physiology | |
| Lang [84] | Whether viewing emotional images produced patterns of physiological activity, recording eyeblink response, heart rate, skin conductance, for each emotion type, valence and arousal | Images | Skin; heart; eye(blink)/face | Psych/physiology | |
| Lang [85] | Emotional images used, measuring heart, respiratory, SCR and eye movements | Images | Respiratory; skin; heart; eye(blink)/facial | Psych/physiology | |
| Lang [86] | Stress tasks and images used, measuring heart activity, respiratory activity, SCR, facial movements | Stress task; images | Respiratory; skin; heart; eye(blink)/facial | Psych/physiology | |
| Lehman [87] | To assess cardiovascular functioning (BP and HR) at times of SSET and examine reports of negative emotions during these | Real life socially evaluative situations | Heart | Psych/physiology/medic | |
| Levenson [88] | Used participants’ emotional facial expressions and relived emotional experiences as stimuli. Heart rate, skin conductance, finger temperature and general somatic activity were all measured as outcomes | Real life events (recalled); facial expressions (participants’ own) | Skin; heart; general somatic activity | Psych/physiology | |
| Limmer [54] | Used mental arithmetic stress test as emotional stimulus, measured heart rate, pulse amplitude, skin conductance levels, electromyographic (EMG) muscle activity of the trapezius, breathing rate, and breathing amplitude, and self-reports pertaining to these locations | Stress task | Respiratory; skin; heart; eye(blink)/facial | Self-report locations with same physiological locations measured. No immediate response indicated | Psych/physiology/med |
| Lobel [89] | Investigates stress responses during computer game play, measured by heart rate | Computer games | Heart | Psych/physiology | |
| López-Benítez [90] | Emotional films were played as stimuli, with cheerfulness measured by self-report and physiological measures taken (HR and SCL); included the Discrete Emotions Scale (DES) | Films | Skin; heart; self-report (DES): gut (i.e., nausea) | DES: only composite figure reported. | Psych/physiology |
| Löw [91] | Threat and opportunity stimuli (images) presented, with physiological responses measured: heart rate, skin conductance, probe startle reflex (EMG) | Images; startle probe | Skin; heart; eye(blink)/face | Psych/physiology | |
| Madan [92] | A study of non-contact forms of heart rate measurement in emotion research | Images | Heart | Psych/physiology | |
| Mark [93] | A syringe needle was used to threaten a rubber hand, with skin conductance response measured | Rubber hand threat | Skin | Psych/physiology | |
| Marshall [94] | Using emotional faces as stimuli (NIMSTIM), along with a visual detection task, this study investigated interoceptive sensitivity, using ECG and EEG | Facial images | Heart | Psych/physiology | |
| Marshall [95] | Measured heartbeat evoked potentials and visual evoked potentials as markers of interoception in response to emotional face stimuli | Facial images | Heart | Psych/physiology | |
| Mauss [96] | Response coherence between different systems, involving emotional film stimuli and measurement of heart, skin conductance and somatic activity (i.e., body movement) | Films | Skin; heart; general somatic activity | Psych/physiology | |
| Meissner [97] | Emotional pictures used, measuring cardiac, EGG (electrogastrogram) and SCR | Images | Skin; heart; gut | Psych/physiology | |
| Melzig [98] | Using interoceptive and exteroceptive threat (mild electric shock), normoventilation and hyperventilation task) in anxious participants to investigate anticipatory anxiety, with heart rate and skin conductance as physiological measures. Startle probes were used to produce defensive startle responses. Self-report on DSM IV symptoms for panic | Anticipation of shock; respiratory (hyperventilation, normoventilation), startle probe | Skin; heart; self-report (DSM symptoms): includes heart, gut, shortness of breath. Unclear if respiratory outcome can be without artifacts (i.e. how shock anticipation relates to respiratory measures). No individual symptom reporting | DSM: appears to be immediate click response after each (?) phase. Physio and self-report of heart. | Psych/physiology/medic |
| Mikkelsen [99] | Investigating age differences regarding links between interoceptive sensitivity (measured by Schandry) and emotional reactivity, including physiological measures (electrodermal activity and heart activity) | Images | Skin; heart | Psych/physiology | |
| Mordkoff [100] | Emotional images, measuring HR, SCR and respiration | Images | Respiratory; skin; heart | Psych/physiology | |
| Nair [101] | Using a stress test as an emotional stimulus to create anxiety and physiological responses (cardiovascular), with upright posture as moderator | Stress task | Heart | Psych/physiology | |
| Noble [102] | Using EMG as a measure of stress from mental arithmetic task | Stress task | Eye(blink)/face | Psych/physiology/medic | |
| Notarius [103] | Stressful films, measuring heart rate, respiration rate, skin conductance, and facial expressions |
Films | Respiratory; skin; heart; facial expressions | Psych/physiology | |
| O’Brien [104] | Investigating impacts of family conflict using recordings of conflict, measuring outcomes by self-report including a tool assessing physical emotional reactions combining several responses (face felt hot or flushed; hands or body got sweaty; lump in throat and/or eyes got teary; body felt restless; heart beating faster, was pounding, or was beating louder; breathing faster; felt a rush of energy) | Audio recordings of conflict | Self-report composite: skin; heart; respiratory | Completed self-report immediately after each recording | Psych |
| Oosterwijk [105] | Using IAPS as stimuli, measured electrodermal activity and the startle response (i.e. orbicularis oculi activity) as indicators of fearful responding. | Images; startle probe | Skin; eye(blink)/face | Psych/physiology | |
| Osborne-Crowley [106] | Investigates TBI and facial feedback for empathy, including physiological changes (skin conductance and heart rate). Self-report: HADS | Feedback from own facial expressions; feedback from own body positions | Skin; heart; self-report (HADS): includes gut ("butterflies") | HADS: used overall score only. No immediate stimulus-response | Psych/physiology |
| Owens [107] | Orienting responses to IAPS stimuli, measuring cardiac activity as physiological outcome | Images | Heart | Psych/physiology/medic | |
| Pappens [108] | Applied resistive loads to the respiratory system for comparisons with picture stimuli, whilst acoustic startle probes (using EMG), airflow and skin conductance were used, along with subjective fear scales | Resistive respiratory load; images; startle probe | Respiratory; skin; heart; eye(blink)/facial | Psych/physiology | |
| Park [109] | Involves sadness stimulus (a video clip) and measurement of physiological responses (heart rate, and blood volume pulse, and parasympathetic activity by assessing respiratory sinus arrhythmia), in comparisons of introversion and extraversion | Films | Heart; RSA | Psych/physiology | |
| Pollatos [110] | Hypothesised that high interoceptive awareness will be associated with greater heart-rate reactivity and better emotional memory in a recognition task, using the Schandry task | Images | Heart | Psych/physiology | |
| Pollatos [111] | Hypothesised that high interoceptive associated with greater heart rate deceleration, and arousal. Schandry was used to measure interoceptive sensitivity | Images | Heart | Psych/physiology | |
| Posserud [112] | Stress tests (a Stroop and mental arithmetic test) were used to induce emotion, measured by HR, whilst distension was undertaken, in IBS patients | Stress task | Gut (rectal); heart | Psych/physiology/medic | |
| Price [113] | Used emotional films with respiratory sinus arrhythmia data (measured by ECG), and used MAIA and DERS (plus other tools) to collect data on interoception and emotion regulation | Films | RSA | Psych/physiology/med | |
| Price [114] | Used erotic images as emotional stimuli to produce startle eyeblink response, whilst in different body postures. They measured outcomes using LPPs and EMG | Images | Eye(blink)/face | Psych/physiology | |
| Raes [115] | In a spatial cueing task, used CS (emotional faces) and US (white noise) and heart beat detection task. In one half of the sample, the latter was undertaken after the conditioning | Facial images | Heart | Psych/physiology | |
| Richards [116] | Violent films and hyperventilation conditions were used to induce arousal, with IS measured by pulse transit time; self-report: Diagnostic Symptom Questionnaire (DSQ) | Films; hyperventilation | Heart; self-report (DSQ): DSM criteria for panic, including heart, gut, shortness of breath | DSQ: completed immediately after the task. Physio heart and self-report of heart but symptoms not reported separately | Psych/physiology/medic |
| Schäflein [117] | Comparing interoceptive accuracy (Schandry task) between people with dissociative disorder and healthy controls, and links between cardiac vagal tone (from HRV) and interoceptive accuracy. Measured sensibility using the MAIA. Facial mirror confrontation task used | Own facial reflection | Heart | Psych/physiology/medic | |
| Schön [118] | Used the cold pressor task, inspiratory resistive load, IAPS images, with breathing rate, heart rate and perceived dyspnoea measured | Resistive respiratory load; cold pressor task; images | (Respiratory); heart | Psych/physiology/medic | |
| Schweizer [119] | Using VR as emotional stimulus, measuring HR and skin conductance levels | Virtual Reality (VR) | Skin; heart | Psych/physiology/medic | |
| Shalom [120] | IAPS images presented to children with HFA whilst SCR was measured, along with self-reported feelings (but did not appear to include body locations) | Images | Skin | Psych/physiology/medic | |
| Stemmler [121] | Tasks and imagery used, measuring self-report (limited number, generic), facial movements, somatic movements, heart rate, respiration rate, SCR and body temperature | Stress task; images | Respiratory; skin; heart; eye(blink)/face; general somatic movements | Psych/physiology | |
| Stephens [122] | Music and film clips used, measuring cardiac, respiratory systems and SCR | Films; music | Respiratory; skin; heart | Psych/physiology | |
| Sternbach [123] | The film "Bambi" used, measuring skin resistance; gastric motility; respiration rate; heart rate; eyeblink rate and finger pulse volume | Films | Respiratory; skin; heart; gut; eye(blink)/face | Psych/physiology | |
| Sze [124] | Whether people with higher IA have greater emotional coherence between subjective emotional experience and physiological responding. Meditators compared with non-meditators and dancers. Heart period measured. Self-reported visceral awareness measured using several scales (Autonomic Perception Questionnaire, APQ, Body Consciousness Questionnaire, BCQ) | Films | Heart; self-report (APQ and BCQ): includes heart, gut, face, respiratory | APQ and BCQ: completed before the study | Psych/physiology |
| Tajadura-Jiménez [125] | The impact of sound (heart beat sounds) and IAPS on physiology (heart beat) and emotional experience | Heart beat sounds; images | Heart | Psych/physiology | |
| Tsai [126] | Asked participants to recall emotional events in their lives, as emotional stimuli, measuring facial expressions as responses and physiological responses: cardiovascular, electrodermal, and respiratory systems | Real life events (recalled) | Respiratory; skin; heart; facial expressions | Psych/physiology | |
| Tsai [127] | Emotional films as stimuli, measured skin conductance level (SCL), heart activity, finger temperature, and respiratory activity (time between inspirations) | Films | Respiratory; skin; heart | Psych/physiology | |
| Uchiyama [128] | Real life emotional stimulus in lab, measuring heart activity, GSR and respiration rate | Real life events (lab-based situations) | Respiratory; skin; heart | Psych/physiology | |
| Van Den Houte [129] | Using negative images to induce emotions in FS patients, measuring by self-report: tight feeling in the chest, heart pounding, stomach ache, headache, fatigue, difficulty breathing, faster heart rate, nausea, dizziness, and muscle ache. Heart rate, skin conductance levels, and fractional end-tidal CO2 were all measured throughout | Images | Skin; heart; respiratory; self-report: includes stomach ache and difficulty breathing, but not reported separately | Heart and respiratory measures and self-report of same locations. No immediate response apparent | Psych/physiology/medic |
| Van Oyen-Witvliet [130] | Used emotional sentences as stimuli, measured SCR, eyeblink (EMG) with startle probe, and HR | Written sentences | Skin; heart; eye(blink)/face | Psych/physiology | |
| Vianna [131] | Used film clips, measuring HR, SCR and EGG (electrogastrogram) | Films | Skin; heart; gut | Psych/physiology | |
| Vrana [132] | Imagined scenarios, measurements of SCL, heart activity, EMG | Imagined imagery | Skin; heart; eye(blink)/face | Psych/physiology | |
| Weinreich [133] | Investigating the effect of an emotional picture task (rating album covers) on EMG | Images | Eye(blink)/face | Psych/physiology | |
| Werner [134] | Uses public speaking as emotion stimulus in a comparison of people with high IS and low IS, including physiological measures (HR, skin conductance), and impacts on anxiety. Used the Questionnaire for Speaking Anxiety (QSA) to measure physical symptoms (including heart and gastric sensations) | Public speaking | Skin; heart; self-report (QSA): includes heart and gut, but individual symptoms not reported | QSA: completed at the time of imagining public speaking | Psych/physiology |
| Werner [135] | Comparing those with high or low interoceptive awareness (assessed by the Schandry) on affective responses to provoked social exclusion. ECG and skin conductance measures taken | Social exclusion situation | Skin; heart | Psych/physiology | |
| Winton [136] | Emotional images, measuring HR, SCR and externally rated facial expressiveness | Images | Skin; heart; facial expressions | Psych/physiology | |
| Yao [137] | Using oxytocin along with emotional face stimuli, participants had to indicate when they detected their heart beat | Oxytocin (emotion hormone); facial images | Heart | Psych/physiology | |
| Zuckerman [138] | Used emotional films, measuring heart activity, SCR, and rating facial expressions | Films | Skin; heart; facial expressions | Psych/physiology |