Table 1.

Summary of application of extracellular vesicles (EVs) as carriers in myocardial repair.

Origin	Isolation strategy	Type and size	Cargo loading	Type of disease	clinical outcomes	References
Mesenchymal stem cell	Centrifugation Total Exosome Isolation reagent (Invitrogen)	Exosomes 135 nm	Lamp2b+IMTP transfection	AMI	IMTP-exosomes exert enhanced therapeutic effects	(63)
Induced pluripotent stem cell–derived cardiomyocytes (iCMs)	Differential ultracentrifugation method	EVs 98–677 nm	Mitochondrion iCMs self-contain	Myocardial infarction	M-EVs improve mitochondrial function and prevent post-MI LV remodeling	(64)
Mesenchymal stem cell	Ultracentrifugation	EVs		Chronic myocardial ischemia	Mesenchymal cell–derived EVs induct capillary and arteriolar growth resulting in increased cardiac output and stroke volume	(65)
Genetically modified MSCs overexpressing CD47	Ultracentrifugation	EVs 90–350 nm	miR-21 Electroporation	I/R injury	miR21-loaded CD47-Evs exert anti-apoptosis effects, alleviate cardiac inflammation, improve cardiac morphology and the functional recovery of the I/R myocardium	(66)
Mesenchymal stem cell Raw 264.7	Exosome isolation kit (Beyotime, China) LiposoFast extruder apparatus (Avestin, Canada)	Hybrid EVs 109.76 nm	RAW 264.7 membrane fusion-extrusion	I/R injury	Mon-Exos were shown to promote endothelial maturation during angiogenesis and modulate macrophage subpopulations after MI/RI offering additional techniques to help clinicians better manage regenerative therapeutics for ischemic heart diseases	(58)
	Ultrafiltration by centrifugation (UFC)	Chimeric EVs 30–150 nm	DPS/ischemic homing peptide/incubation	I/R injury	IschCDC-EVs greatly enhances localization to injured myocardium as a potential targeting carrier of CVD	(67)
HEK293 cells expressing CTP-tagged FLAG-LAMP2b	Sartorius 10-kDa (5 L) poly- ether sulfone membranes	Chimeric EVs <150 nm	siRAGE-loaded C-sEVs	Myocarditis	C-sEVs may be a useful drug delivery vehicle for the treatment of heart disease	(68)