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. 2021 Dec 4;11(12):1834. doi: 10.3390/biom11121834

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© 2021 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Activation of AMPK by metformin and its principal downstream pathways involved in HF physiopathology. AMPK: AMP-dependent kinase; AT1R: AngII type 1 receptor; eNOS: endothelial nitric oxide synthase; eEF2: eukariotic elongation factor-2 kinase; GLUT4: glucose transporter protein type-4; JNK: c-Jun N-terminal kinase; NF-ĸB: nuclear factor-kB; OCT: organic cation transporter; p70S6K: protein kinase 70S6; PFK1: phosphofructokinase 1; PGC1α: peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-g coactivator-1α; PKA: protein kinase A; SIRT1-2-3: deacetylase Sirtuin 1-2-3; TGF- β: transforming growth factor- β; TLR4: Toll-like receptor 4.