Table 1.
Echocardiography parameters before and after experimental sessions.
| Pre-RAE | Post-RAE | Pre-HIIE | Post-HIIE | Controls (T0) | Controls (T1) | Between-Group p | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| LV Function | |||||||
| HR, bpm | 62.8 ± 13.4 | 67.5 ± 11.2 | 57.2 ± 20.6 | 55.9 ± 19.3 | 60.8 ± 15.2 | 60.4 ± 17.7 | 0.238 |
| EDV, mL | 164.3 ± 37.3 | 154.7 ± 48.5 | 162.6 ± 44.2 | 148.6 ± 39.7 | 160.3 ± 46.2 | 162.3 ± 40.4 | 0.142 |
| ESV, mL | 74.1 ± 18.5 | 73.2 ± 13.9 | 72.9 ± 19.4 | 62.5 ± 17.3 | 74.5 ± 21.2 | 72.5 ± 15.8 | 0.190 |
| SV, mL | 80.1 ± 20.6 | 82.4 ± 26.2 | 81.7 ± 21.5 | 74.1 ± 28.2 | 80.7 ± 17.5 | 79.3 ± 19.4 | 0.117 |
| CO, L/min | 5.3 ± 1.8 | 5.5 ± 1.3 | 5.3 ± 2.5 | 5.1 ± 1.8 | 5.3 ± 2.1 | 5.2 ± 1.4 | 0.092 |
| GLS, % | −15.6 ± 3.7 | −15.0 ± 2.9 | −15.7 ± 3.1 | −15.2 ± 4.4 | −15.5 ± 5.0 | −15.3 ± 3.6 | 0.277 |
| EF, % | 52.4 ± 6.6 | 53.1 ± 8.1 | 51.5 ± 7.8 | 52.1 ± 8.3 | 52.4 ± 6.9 | 51.9 ± 9.0 | 0.314 |
| E, cm/s | 69.0 ± 21.3 | 64.3 ± 24.1 | 69.5 ± 18.7 | 61.8 ± 15.6 | 69 ± 16.0 | 68 ± 17.1 | 0.289 |
| A, cm/s | 68.5 ± 16.8 | 68.3 ± 18.3 | 70.8 ± 19.5 | 71.1 ± 16.2 | 70.6 ± 19.2 | 69.4 ± 21.0 | 0.332 |
| E’, cm/s | 9.1 ± 1.5 | 8.7 ± 2.2 | 9.5 ± 1.9 | 5.5 ± 1.4 * | 9.4 ± 2.0 | 9.3 ± 1.8 | 0.085 |
| E/E’ | 7.5 ± 1.7 | 8.1 ± 2.4 | 7.6 ± 1.1 | 12.2 ± 1.6 * | 7.6 ± 2.2 | 7.8 ± 1.9 | 0.002 |
| LV stiffness | 0.045 ± 0.7 | 0.052 ± 0.9 | 0.046 ± 0.6 | 0.082 ± 0.4 * | 0.047 ± 0.2 | 0.048 ± 0.8 | 0.013 |
| LA Function | |||||||
| PALS, % | 37.8 ± 11.0 | 39.4 ± 6.7 | 35.8 ± 9.3 | 31.2 ± 10.5 | 37.8 ± 12.5 | 37.2 ± 11.3 | 0.032 |
| PACS, % | 18.6 ± 2.1 | 20.9 ± 2.6 | 15.6 ± 2.3 | 15.5 ± 1.8 | 18.6 ± 2.6 | 18.9 ± 2.8 | 0.096 |
| LA stiffness | 0.20 ± 0.08 | 0.22 ± 0.04 | 0.21 ± 0.07 | 0.38 ± 0.06 * | 0.20 ± 0.04 | 0.20 ± 0.05 | 0.083 |
| LAVI, mL/m2 | 32.4 ± 3.6 | 33.0 ± 4.1 | 32.7 ± 4.0 | 33.5 ± 3.6 | 32.0 ± 5.9 | 32.3 ± 4.6 | 0.302 |
EDV = end diastolic volume; ESV = end systolic volume; SV = stroke volume; CO = cardiac output; GLS = global longitudinal strain; EF = ejection fraction; E/E’= ratio between early filling velocity (E) and mitral annulus early diastolic velocity (E’). PALS = peak atrial longitudinal strain; PACS = peak atrial contraction strain; LAVI = left atrial volume index. * p < 0.05 (pre-exercise vs post-exercise). Statistical tests: two-way ANOVA and Bonferroni corrections for normally distributed parameters; Kruskal–Wallis test and Bonferroni corrections for non-normally distributed parameters.