Table 2.
Articles’ methodological (participants and environment characteristics) considerations following the Thermographic Imaging in Sports and Exercise Medicine [28] checklist.
| # | Reference | Participants Data | Previous Instructions | Extrinsic Factors | Environmental Conditions | Environmental Setup | Equipment | Image Background | Thermal Adaptation |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Tumilty et al. [29] | 10♂ and 7♀ (18–25 years), competitive cross-country runners (training: 25 miles/w) | No alcohol, caffeine, smoking, or exercise | NR | T°: 21.8 ± 0.5 °C %RH: 47.3 ± 8.1% |
Minimized airflow | FLIR T450SC Accuracy: 1% Sensitivity: ≤0.05 °C |
Non-reflective surfaces | 15 min (seated) |
| 2 | Gil-Calvo et al. [30] | 17♂ (27.0 ± 8.0 years), recreational runners (training: 4.0 ± 2.0 sessions/w) | No alcohol, caffeine, smoking, tea, drugs, heavy meals | NR | Assessed, no data | Reflected temperature measured. No electronic devices, light, or airflow in the room |
FLIR E60bx Accuracy: 2% Sensitivity: <0.05 °C |
Black panel | 10 min (seated, extended knees) |
| 3 | Gutiérrez-Vargas et al. [31] | 10♂ and 7♀ (35.8 ± 7.0 years) recreational runners (training: 9.3 ± 6.6 years of experience) |
NR | NR | T°: 22.3 ± 0.9 °C %RH: 64.7 ± 8.3% |
NR | FLIR T440 Accuracy: 2% Sensitivity: ≤0.2 °C |
NR | 10 min (biped) |
| 4 | Fournet et al. [32] | 9♂ and 9♀ (18–25 years), physically active Caucasians | NR | NR | T°: 22 °C | NR | FLIR Thermacam B2 Accuracy: ±2% Sensitivity: ±0.1 °C |
NR | 10 min |
| 5 | Priego-Quesada et al. [33] | 14♂ (29.9 ± 8.3 years), cyclists (training: 162 ± 77 km/w) |
No alcohol, caffeine, smoking, sunbathing, UV ray exposure, heavy meals, or exercise | NR | Controlled not specified | No electronic equipment or persons | FLIR E-60 Accuracy: 2% Sensitivity: ≤0.05 °C |
Anti-reflective panel | 10–15 min |
| 6 | Priego-Quesada et al. [34] | 10♂ and 14 ♀ (29.3 ± 5.8 years), runners (training: 38.5 ± 16.3 km/w) |
No alcohol, caffeine, smoking, sunbathing, creams or body lotions, heavy meals, or exercise | Compression stocking | Controlled, not specified | No electronic equipment or persons | FLIR E-60 Accuracy: 2% Sensitivity: ≤0.05 °C |
Anti-reflective panel | 1 min |
| 7 | Priego-Quesada et al. [35] | 19♂ (29.5 ± 9.8 years), runners (training: 229 ± 150 km/w) |
No alcohol, caffeine, smoking, sunbathing, creams or body lotions, heavy meals, or exercise | NR | Controlled, not specified | No electronic equipment or persons, lights off | FLIR E-60 Sensitivity: ≤0.05 °C |
Anti-reflective panel | 1 min |
| 8 | Priego-Quesada et al. [36] | 10♂ (25.0 ± 4.0 years), physically active cyclists | No alcohol, caffeine, smoking, sunbathing, creams or body lotion, heavy meals | NR | T°:19.5 ± 1.3 °C %RH:62.9 ± 3.2% |
No electronic equipment or persons, lights and temperature controlled | FLIR E-60 Accuracy: 2% Sensitivity: ≤0.05 °C |
Anti-reflective panel | 10 min |
| 9 | Priego-Quesada et al. [37] | 10♂ (40.0 ± 6.0 years), recreational triathletes (training: 7.0 ± 3.0 years of experience) | No alcohol, caffeine, smoking, sunbathing, creams or body lotion, heavy meals | No recovery protocols between training | T°:18 °C %RH:44–63% |
No electronic equipment or persons, lights and temperature controlled | FLIR E-60 Accuracy: 2% Sensitivity: ≤0.05 °C |
Anti-reflective panel | 10 min (biped) |
| 10 | Hadžić, et al. [22] | 1♂ (25 years), middle-distance runner (training: 12 years of experience) | NR | NR | T°: 23.5 ± 2 °C | NR | FLIR T425 Accuracy: 1% |
NR | 15 min |
| 11 | Fernandes et al. [38] | 12♂ (22.4 ± 3.3 years), physically active (training: >3 times/w) | Controlled food intake. Avoid thermal stress, exercise. | NR | T°: 24.9 ± 0.6 °C %RH: 62.3 ± 5.7% |
Artificial light | T420 Accuracy: 2% Sensitivity: ≤0.05 °C |
NR | 1 h |
| 12 | Rodriguez-Sanz et al. [39] | 57♂ (42.8 ± 7.0 years), runners with functional equinus (training: 6 h/week) | No drugs or physical activity, heavy meals, or caffeine. | NR | T°: 24.1 ± 1.0 °C %RH: 45 ± 10% |
Minimized airflow | FLIR SC3000 | NR | NR |
| 13 | Priego-Quesada et al. [40] | 9♂ (26 ± 10 years), recreational runners (training: (30.8 ± 28.9 km/w) | NR | NR | T°:23.2 ± 0.9 °C %HR: 27.9 ± 5.1% |
NR | FLIR E60bx Accuracy: 2% Sensitivity: ≤0.05 °C |
NR | 5–10 min |
| 14 | Merla et al. [41] | 15♂ (25.2 ± 3.1 years), well-trained runners | Shaved, no creams or lotions, no smoking, alcohol, or caffeine intake | NR | T°: 23–24 °C %HR: 50 ± 5%. |
NR | FLIR SC3000 | NR | 20 min |
| 15 | Luo et al. [42] | 19♂ (26.2 ± 1.2 years) runners | No exercise 24 h before | NR | T°: 26 °C %HR: 60–70% |
NR | DaLi DL700 | NR | NR |
| 16 | Rynkiewicz et al. [43] | 14♂ and 5♀ (15.4 ± 1 years), kayakers (training experience: 4 years) | NR | NR | T°: 22 ± 0.5 °C %HR 40 ± 2%. |
NR | ThermaCAM SC 640 | NR | 15 min |
| 17 | Robles-Dorado [44] | 28♂ and 4 ♀ (38.8 ± 6.4 years), runners (training experience: 8.5 years) | NR | Same socks | NR | NR | PCE-TC 3 Accuracy: 2% Sensitivity: ≤2 °C |
NR | NR |
| 18 | Sanz-López et al. [45] | 20♂ (22.8 ± 4.2 years), active (training experience: 3 d/week) | No exercise | NR | T°: 21 °C %RH: 60% |
NR | FLIR E60 | NR | 10 min |
| 19 | Priego-Quesada et al. [46] | 16♂ (20 ± 10 years), club level cyclists | No alcohol, caffeine, smoking, sunbathing or UV rays, creams or body lotion, heavy meals, no exhaustive exercise | NR | T°: 23.4–24 °C %RH: 40.7–50.8% |
No electronic equipment or persons, lights and temperature controlled | FLIR E60bx Accuracy: 2% Sensitivity: ≤0.05 °C |
Anti-reflective panel | 10 min |
| 20 | Ludwig et al. [47] | 7♂ (20 ± 10 years), elite cyclists (training level: 66.89 VO2max = mL/kg/min) | No strenuous exercise | NR | T°: 22–23 °C %RH: 50% |
No direct airflow, controlled light. | AVIO TVS700 | NR | 10 min |
| 21 | Priego-Quesada et al. [48] | 11♂ (31 ± 7.4 years) cyclist (training: 264.5 km/week) and 11♂ (27.2 ± 6.6 years) non- cyclists | No alcohol, caffeine, smoking, sunbathing or UV rays, creams or body lotion, heavy meals, no exhaustive exercise | NR | T°: 23.5 ± 1.2 °C %RH: 49.9 ± 3.9% |
No direct airflow, no electronic equipment near, controlled light. | FLIR T420 Sensitivity: <0.045 °C |
Anti-reflective panel | 10 min |
| 22 | Priego-Quesada et al. [49] | 17♂ and 5♀ (34 ± 5 years) endurance runners (training: 36.6 ± 12.9 km∕week) | No alcohol, caffeine, smoking, sunbathing or UV rays, creams or body lotion, heavy meals, no exhaustive exercise | NR | T°: 22.9 ± 1.3 °C %RH: 44.4 ± 12.1% |
No direct airflow, no electronic equipment near, controlled light. | FLIR E60 Accuracy: 2% Sensitivity: ≤0.05 °C |
Anti-reflective panel | 10 min |
| 23 | Jiménez-Pérez et al. [50] | 15♂ (28 ± 7 years) and 15♀ (35 ± 7 years) recreational runners (training: 20 km/week) | No alcohol, caffeine, smoking, sunbathing or UV rays, creams or body lotion, heavy meals, no exhaustive exercise | NR | T°: 20.9 ± 1 °C %RH: 39.4 ± 6.4% |
No direct airflow, no electronic equipment near, controlled light. | FLIR E60bx | Anti-reflective panel | 10 min |
| 24 | Mendonca-Barboza et al. [51] | 10♂ (23.5 ± 5.1 years) middle- distance elite runners (training: 2–3 h/d, 5 d/week) | No alcohol, smoking, drugs, or exercise was allowed | NR | T°: 22–24 °C %RH: 50% |
NR | FLIR T360 | NR | 15 min |
| 25 | Duygu et al. [52] | 18♂ sailing athletes | NR | NR | T°: 21 °C | NR | FLIR E5 | NR | 10–20 min |
| 26 | Pérez-Guarner et al. [53] | 11♂ and 6♀ (41 ± 6 years) runners (training 5.9 ± 1.9 sessions/week) | No alcohol, caffeine, smoking, sunbathing or UV rays, creams or body lotion, heavy meals, no exhaustive exercise | NR | T°: 23.2 ± 0.1 °C %RH: 20 ± 1% |
No direct airflow, no electronic equipment near, controlled light. | FLIR E60 Accuracy: 2% Sensitivity: ≤0.05 °C |
Anti-reflective panel | 10 min |
| 27 | Drzazga et al. [54] | 6♂ cross-country skiers (23 ± 2.7 years) and 4♂ (21.5 ± 2.1 years) elite swimmers | NR | NR | T°: 19 ± 0.5 C %RH: 56 ± 3% |
NR | FLIR E60 Sensitivity: 0.05 K |
NR | 1–2 min |
| 28 | Trecroci et al. [55] | 10♂ (21.4 ± 2.6 years) elite cyclists | No strenuous exercise, no medication, drugs, cosmetic products, or caffeine intake. | NR | T°: 22–23 °C %RH: 50 ± 5% |
Constant natural and fluorescent lighting and no direct ventilation | AVIO TVS-700 | Constant temperature panel | 10 min |
| 29 | Novotny et al. [56] | 13 active students | No exercise | NR | T°: 27.9–28.1 °C %RH: 52.3–52.8% |
NR | FLUKE TiR | NR | 15 min |
| 30 | Novotny et al. [57] | 25♂ (20.6 ± 1.61) active students | NR | NR | T°: 27.9–28.1 °C %RH: 52.3–52.8% |
NR | FLUKE TiR Sensitivity: 0.1° |
NR | 15 min |
| 31 | Priego-Quesada et al. [58] | 16♂ endurance runners | No alcohol, caffeine, smoking, sunbathing or UV rays, creams or body lotion, heavy meals, no exhaustive exercise | NR | T°: 27.9–28.1 °C %RH: 52.3–52.8% |
No direct airflow, no electronic equipment near, controlled light. | FLIR E60bx Accuracy: 2% Sensitivity: ≤0.05 °C |
Anti-reflective panel | 10 min |
| 32 | Requena-Bueno et al. [59] | 20♂ and 10♀ (34 ± 10 years) runners (training 34.6 ± 19.5 km/week) | No alcohol, caffeine, smoking, sunbathing or UV rays, creams or body lotion, heavy meals, no exhaustive exercise | NR | T°: 21.4 ± 2.0 °C %RH: 40.6 ± 10.1% |
No direct airflow, no electronic equipment near, controlled light. | FLIR E60bx Accuracy: 2% Sensitivity: ≤0.05 °C |
Anti-reflective panel | 10 min |
| 33 | Bertucci et al. [60] | 2♂ (16 years) competitive cyclists | NR | NR | NR | NR | Cedip Titanium HD560M | NR | NR |
| 34 | Ferreira-Oliveira et al. [61] | 16♂ (22.5 ± 2.1) young active men |
No diuretics, smoking, alcohol, or drugs consumption, dermatological treatments, or lotions | No skin burns, kidney problems, symptoms of pain, osteomioarticular injury | T°: 19.7 ± 1.5 °C %RH: 56.9 ± 5% |
NR | Fluke ITR-25 | NR | 10 min |
| 35 | Andrade-Fernandes et al. [62] | 12♂ (22.4 ± 3.3 years) active males (training: +3 times/week) | No diuretics, smoking, alcohol, or drugs consumption, dermatological treatments, or lotions | No skin burns, kidney problems, symptoms of pain, osteomioarticular injury | T°: 24.9 ± 0.6 °C %RH: 62.3 ± 5.7% |
NR | FLIR T420 | NR | 30 min |
| 36 | Akimov & Son’kin [63] | 20♂ (23.3 ± 4.8 years), athletes | NR | NR | T°: 21–22 °C %RH: 40% |
NR | NEC TH9100 | NR | 10 min |
| 37 | Cholewka et al. [64] | 12♂ (23.3 ± 4.8 years), cyclist | NR | NR | T°: 21.8 ± 1 °C | NR | FLIR E60 Sensitivity: 0.05 K |
NR | 30–40 min |
| 38 | Tanda [65] | 6♂ and 1♀ (18–59 years), middle-long distance runners (training: 3–5 sessions/w) | NR | NR | T°: 22 °C %RH: 4% |
Heating/cooling air conditioning system | FLIR T335 | NR | 10 min |
| 39 | Crenna & Tanda [66] | 6♂ | NR | NR | T°: 23–27 °C %RH: 60–70% |
NR | FLIR T335 | NR | 10 min |
| 40 | Rojas-Valverde et al. [67] | 9♂ and 7♀ (36 ± 7 years), distance runners (training: 10 ± 7 years of experience) |
No drugs, alcohol, caffeine, smoking, exercise, lotions, or creams. | No neuromuscular injury or pathological or metabolic disease | T°: 23.0 ± 0.5 °C %RH: 58.0 ± 6% |
Heating/cooling air conditioning system and radiation avoided | FLIR T440 Accuracy: 2% Sensitivity: 0.04 °C |
Anti-reflective panel | 15 min |
| 41 | Fernández-Cuevas et al. [68] | 15♂ (21.4 ± 2.6 years), physically active college students | No drugs, alcohol, smoking, exercise. | NR | T°: 20.6 ± 0.7 °C %RH: 44.0 ± 3.2% |
NR | FLIR T335 | NR | 15 min |
| 42 | Racinais et al. [69] | 47♂ and 36 ♀(only 49 in Tsk), elite athletes | NR | NR | T°: 29.3 ± 0.5–32.7 ± 0.2 °C %RH: 46.3 ± 1.0–80.6 ± 1.1% |
Skin was towel dried | FLIR T600 | NR | NR |
| 43 | Machado et al. [70] | 12♂ (25 ± 8 years), active males (training: 43.4 ± 44.2 km/week) | NR | NR | T°: 3.1 ± 0.9 °C %RH: 28.1 ± 5.1% | No electronic equipment or persons, lights and temperature controlled | FLIR E60bx, C2 and Flir-One-Pro LT | Anti-reflective panel | 10 min |
| 44 | Binek et al. [71] | 10♂ and 6 ♀(22 ± 3.23 and 23.7 ± 3.15 years), cross-country skiers | NR | NR | T°: 20 ± 1 %RH: 56 ± 3% |
NR | FlirE60 | NR | NR |
| 45 | Jones et al. [72] | Two♂ (16 and 18 years) middle-distance runners | NR | NR | T°: 28.2 ± 2.8 °C %RH: 43.0 ± 11.4% | NR | Flir T600 | NR |