Table 3.
Associations between self-reported olfactory function and dietary measures among NHANES 2011-2014 participants, ages 40 years and older, tested in survey-weighted regression models.
| Dietary Measures | Unadjusted | Model 1 a | Model 2 b | Model 3 c |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mean Difference (95% CI) | Mean Difference (95% CI) | Mean Difference (95% CI) | Mean Difference (95% CI) | |
| Energy intake | 36.6 (−42.7, 115.9) | 24.6 (−57.9, 107.1) | 32.7 (−49.5, 115.0) | 33.0 (−50.0, 115.6) |
| Energy density of foods (kcal/g) | 0.08 (0.03, 0.13) ** | 0.06 (0.002, 0.12) * | 0.06 (0.002, 0.12) * | 0.06 (0.004, 0.11) * |
| HEI–2015 total score | −1.67 (−2.74, −0.61) ** | −1.15 (−2.29, −0.01) * | −1.09 (−2.22, 0.05) | −1.07 (−2.19, 0.05) |
| HEI–2015 moderation score | −0.74 (−1.26, −0.22) ** | −0.71 (−1.27, −0.16) * | −0.67 (−1.22, −0.12) * | −0.67 (−1.22, −0.11) * |
| HEI–2015 adequacy score | −0.94 (−1.72, −0.15) * | −0.43 (−1.21, 0.35) | −0.42 (−1.20, 0.36) | −0.41 (−1.18, 0.36) |
| % Energy from total fat | 0.97 (0.30, 1.63) ** | 1.01 (0.25, 1.76) ** | 0.96 (0.21, 1.72) * | 0.96 (0.22, 1.70) * |
| % Energy from saturated fat | 0.48 (0.15, 0.80) ** | 0.48 (0.13, 0.83) ** | 0.47 (0.12, 0.82) ** | 0.47 (0.12, 0.81) ** |
| % Energy from added sugar | 1.30 (0.60, 2.00) *** | 0.95 (0.29, 1.62) ** | 1.00 (0.33, 1.67) ** | 1.00 (0.33, 1.66) ** |
| % Energy from alcoholic beverages | −0.64 (−1.47, 0.20) | −0.86 (−1.74, 0.03) | −0.77 (−1.66, 0.12) | −0.77 (−1.65, 0.12) |
| Total fruits (cup eq/1000 kcal) | −0.06 (−0.11, −0.01) * | −0.03 (−0.08, 0.02) | −0.03 (−0.08, 0.02) | −0.03 (−0.08, 0.02) |
| Whole fruits (cup eq/1000 kcal) | −0.04 (−0.08, 0.003) | −0.02 (−0.06, 0.03) | −0.02 (−0.06, 0.03) | −0.02 (−0.06, 0.03) |
| Total vegetables (cup eq/1000 kcal) | −0.08 (−0.16, 0.004) | −0.05 (−0.14, 0.03) | −0.06 (−0.14, 0.03) | −0.06 (−0.14, 0.03) |
| Dark leafy greens and beans (cup eq/1000 kcal) | −0.01 (−0.04, 0.01) | −0.004 (−0.03, 0.02) | −0.002 (−0.03, 0.03) | −0.002 (−0.03, 0.03) |
| Whole grains (oz eq/1000 kcal) | −0.03 (−0.08, 0.02) | −0.03 (−0.08, 0.02) | −0.03 (−0.09, 0.02) | −0.03 (−0.09, 0.02) |
| Dietary diversity Score d | −0.19 (−0.50, 0.12) | −0.04 (−0.34, 0.26) | −0.02 (−0.32, 0.28) | −0.02 (−0.31, 0.28) |
Abbreviations: Healthy Eating Index 2015 score (HEI). Bolded items indicate significant mean differences between olfactory dysfunction and normal function (* p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001). a Adjusted for age, sex, income, education level, race/Hispanic origin, and smoking status. b Adjusted for all variables in Model 1 and chronic disease score. c Adjusted for all variables in Model 2 and physical activity. d Dietary diversity defined as the number of unique food and beverage codes reported in a 24 h recall, excluding plain water, in quantities of at least 15 g.