Table 3.
Compound | Structure | Mechanism of Action | References |
---|---|---|---|
Tormentic acid |
Inhibition of NF-kB signaling pathway and prevents the expressions of iNOS, COX-2, and TNF-α. |
[152] | |
Increased activity of Superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase and catalase. | [153] | ||
Andalusol | Inhibition of histamine | [154] | |
Inhibition of iNOS expression by inactivation of NF-kB | [155] | ||
Tanshinone IIA | TLR2/NF-kB signaling pathway blocker | [156] | |
Salvinorin A | KOR agonist. | [157] | |
Inhibition of dopamine overflow mediated by KOR. | [158] | ||
α-amyrenone | PKC and PKA activity blocker. | [159] | |
Antioxidant activity. | [160] | ||
β-amyrenone | Decreased levels of TNF-α and caspase 3 Reduction in oxidative stress. |
[161] | |
Ursolic acid | NO, PGE2 inhibitor. | [162] | |
TRPV1 antagonist. Modulator of cGMP and serotonergic system. |
[115] | ||
Carnosol | Suppression of iNOS by down-regulation of NF-kB. | [163] | |
Suppression of PGE2 synthesis by the inhibition of mPGES-1. | [164] | ||
Inhibition of the induction of COX-2 by blocking PKC signaling and thereby the binding of AP-1 to the CRE of the COX-2 promoter. | [165] | ||
Oleanolic acid | Opioid agonist. NO inhibitor. Activation of ATP-gated K+ channels. |
[166] | |
Opioid and 5-HT agonist. | [167] | ||
Betulinic acid | Reduction in TNF-α production. Increase in IL-10 production. |
[168] | |
Reduction in the levels of COX-2, NO, TNF-α and IL-1β. Inhibition of MDA level via increasing the activities of SOD, GPx, GRd. |
[169] |
Abbreviations: 5HT: 5-hydroxytryptamine; 5HT1A: Serotonin 1A receptor; AP-1: activator protein 1; ATP: Adenosine triphosphate; CCL11: C-C motif chemokine 11; cGMP: Cyclic guanosine monophosphate; COX-2: Cyclooxygenase-2; CRE: cyclic AMP response element; GPx: glutathione peroxidase; GRd: glutathione reductase; IL-: Interleukin-; iNOS: Inducible nitric oxide synthase; KOR: κ-opioid receptor; LTB4: Leukotriene B4; MDA: Malondialdehyde; mPGES-1: Microsomal prostaglandin E synthase-1; NF-kB: Nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells; NO: Nitric oxide; PGE2: Prostaglandin E2; PKA: protein kinase A; PKC: protein kinase C; SOD: Superoxide dismutase; TLR2: Toll-like receptor 2; TNF-α: Tumor necrosis factor-alpha; TRPV1: Transient receptor potential cation channel subfamily V member 1.