Table 1.

Possible therapeutic options for first line therapy-resistant CAE forms.

Older therapeutic options for resistant CAE	Efficacy and characteristics
Clobazam, Clonazepam and Acetazolamide	Clonazepam most frequently used but benzodiazepines have invalidating side effects and possible development of tolerance [58]. Only used in association with first line CAE therapy. Acetazolamide rarely used due to important adverse effects (kidney stones) [58].
New therapeutic options for resistant CAE	Efficacy and characteristics
Levetiracetam	Contrasting data regarding efficacy; possibly used in monotherapy [26,55]. Can be associated with VPA,LTG, ETX [69]. Most promising drug for future studies [58].
Topiramate	Not efficacious in monotherapy [57]. Can be associated with VPA,LTG, ETX [69].
Zonisamide	Possibly used in monotherapy [25]; studies are necessary for possible associations with other antiepileptic drugs.
Experimental therapeutic options for resistant CAE	Efficacy and characteristics
Perampanel; EpidiolexVR	Perampanel as adjunctive therapy in idiopathic generalized epilepsy with absences, no evidence yet for treatment of CAE [60]. Epidiolex VR only in animal models [59].