Table 2.

AgNPs and their inhibitory actions against viral entities.

Virus	Synthesis	Characterization	Coating/Size	Target	Inhibitory Actions	References
Adenovirus type 3	Chemical	XRD, TEM	Uncoated/~11.4 ± 6.2 nm	Viral concentration of TCID50, HeLa cells	Directly damaged Ad3 particles	[87]
HBV	Chemical	SPR, XRD, TEM, UV-Vis	Uncoated/~10 nm, ~50 nm	HepAD38 cells	Bound to HBV dsDNA and reduced extracellular DNA formation and intracellular RNA formation	[93]
HSV-1 (DNA)	Sonochemical	TEM, XPS	Coated, MES/4 nm, 13 nm, 33 nm, and 46 nm	Vero cells, GMK-AH1 cells, mouse keratinocyte 291.03C cells, α-MEM cells	Infection was mostly blocked or reduced	[30,183]
HSV-1 (RNA)	Chemical	EM, DRS, FTIR, EDXS	Uncoated/30–60 nm	C8166 T, HeLa β-gal-CD4 + -CCR + cells	Decreased infectivity as observed by counting the number of GFP+ cells or syncytium formation	[79]
Influenza A	Chemical	XRD, TEM	Uncoated/1–400 nm	Hemagglutinin, MDCK cells, Vero, MDFK, MDCK Mice BALB/c	Reduced or completely inhibited agglutinated erythrocytes and inhibited apoptosis in MDCK cells	[107,108,109,184,185,186,187,188]
Norovirus	Chemical	TEM, DLS	Uncoated/10, 75, 110 nm	FCV	Inactivation of FCV might be due to physical interactions with VP1	[114]
Poliovirus	Electrochemical	UV-Vis, EDXS, TEM	Uncoated/4 to 9 nm	Viral concentration of TCID50	Prevented viral particle binding to the receptors of RD cells	[189]
RSV	Chemical	UV-Vis, DLS, SEM, TEM	Curcumin, and uncoated/10, 19.72 ± 0.54 nm	Viral concentration of TCID50, HEp-2 cells, A549 (type II) and HEp-2 Mice BALB/c	Inactivated RSV directly before entering cells	[82,83,123]
RVF	Chemical	--	Coated/35 nm	Vero cell cultures and in type-I interferonreceptor deficient mice (IFNAR −/− mice)	Before the infection, reduction of infectivity	[126]
SARS-CoV-2	Photochemical	UV-VIS, TEM, SEM, zeta potential analysis	Coated/10–30 nm, 2–15 nm	Vero E6 cells (105 cells/mL), Calu-3 cell lines	Extracellular viruses are inhibited by silver nanoparticles because they prevent viral entrance	[29]
Chikungunya virus	Biological(plant)	UV-Vis, FTIR, SEM, DLS, zeta potential measurements	Coated/70–120 nm	Vero cells	Inhibition occurs as AgNps reduce/stop the replication of the Chikungunya virus in cell-line and in silico studies	[140,141]
BUNV	--	TEM, correlative light and electron microscopy	Coated/10 nm	Vero cells (CCL-81)	Potent inhibitors caused changes in the ultrastructure virus and significantly lowered virus titers in cell supernatants.	[81]
WSSV	Chemical	TEM	Coated/35 nm (avg)	Penaeus vannamei shrimp	LGBP levels rise as a result of the recognition of AgNPs or their contact with the WSSV viral envelope, which activates PAMP recognition proteins.	[156]
ZIKV	Biological(plant)	UV–vis, SEM, TEM, EDS, XRD, FTIR	Coated/15–55 nm, 16–87 nm	Aedes albopictus (larvae and pupae)	The larvae were severely affected, with substantial damage to the midgut epithelial cells	[35]