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. 2021 Nov 24;10(12):1537. doi: 10.3390/pathogens10121537

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© 2021 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Summary of clinical trials on immune augmentation against SARS-CoV-2 infection. Clinical trials ranged from off-the-shelf BCG or MMR vaccines that aimed at inducing protective heterologous immunity against COVID-19 for healthcare professionals, to direct transfer of hyperimmunoglobulin or ex vivo trained immune cells that aimed at preventing viral dissemination or direct killing of infected cells in COVID-19 patients, then to conventional vaccines with protein vaccines, RNA vaccines, DNA vaccines, viral vector vaccines, inactivated virus vaccines, and VLP vaccines that aimed at COVID-19 prophylaxis via eliciting Th-dependent B memory pathways in healthy adults. BCG, Bacillus Calmette–Guérin; APC, antigen-presenting cell; PD-1: programmed cell death protein-1; Tc, cytotoxic T; NK, natural killer; C5aR, component 5a receptor; VLP, virus-like particle.