Table 2.
Studies with polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA): vegetable oils and nuts.
| First Author, Location (Year) |
Study Participants | Intervention | HDL Function Analyzed | Results |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Abbey M, Australia (1990) [53] |
33 hypercholesterolemic men Mean age ± SD: 47.4 ± 2.5 years |
6-week parallel intervention with supplements of: (1) 14 g/day linoleic acid (safflower oil). (2) 9 g α-linolenic acid (linseed oil). (3) 3.8 g of n-3 FA (fish oil). |
Plasma LCAT activity | No effect. |
| Baudet MF, France (1988) [37] |
20 healthy women Mean age ± SD: 39 ± 9 years |
6-week crossover intervention diets with 15.6% total calories from: (1) Low-erucic-acid rapeseed oil. (2) Sunflower oil. (3) Peanut oil. (4) Milk fats (butter or cream). |
Serum LCAT activity | Increase in LCAT activity in sunflower oil group relative to milk fats diets or low erucic rapeseed oil. |
| Berryman CE, USA (2017) [41] |
48 participants with high LDL cholesterol (22 men and 26 women) Mean age ± SD: 50 ± 9 years |
6-week crossover intervention with: (1) 43 g almonds/day. (2) Control diet (isocaloric cholesterol-lowering diet (without almonds)). |
3H CEC in J774 cells in ABDS samples | Increase in non-ABCA1 CEC relative to control diet. |
| Buonacorso V, Brazil (2007) [44] |
30 healthy participants (9 men and 21 women) Mean age ± SD: 35.3 ± 10 years |
4-week parallel intervention with diets enriched with: (1) TFAs (8.3% total energy). (2) PUFAs (14.6% total energy). (3) SFAs (13.2% total fats). |
3H CEC in primary macrophages cells in isolated HDL3 and HDL2 | No effect. |
| Canales A, Spain (2011) [55] |
22 participants at high cardiovascular risk (12 men and 10 women) Mean age: 54.8 years |
5-week crossover intervention with: (1) 300 g/week of walnut-enriched meat (20% walnut paste). (2) Control low-fat diet. |
Serum Paraoxonase 1 activity | Increased PON1 activity inn walnut meat group relative to control diet. |
| Canales A, Spain (2007) [56] |
22 participants at high cardiovascular risk (12 men and 10 women) Mean age: 54.8 ± 8.3 years |
5-week crossover intervention with: (1) 600 g/week of walnut-enriched meat (20% walnut paste). (2) Control low-fat diet. |
Serum Paraoxonase 1 activity | Increased PON1 activity inn walnut meat group relative to baseline. |
| Chung BH, USA (2004) [51] |
16 healthy participants (8 men and 8 women) Mean age men ± SD: 35.3 ± 4.5 years Mean age women ± SD: 51.9 ± 6.6 years |
16-day crossover diet: (1) PUFA-rich diet. (2) SFA-rich diet. |
Plasma CETP mass | No effect. |
| Cox C, New Zeland (1995) [47] |
28 hypercholesterlemic participants (13 men and 15 women) Age range: 26–64 years |
6-week crossover isocaloric diets: (1) Safflower-oil diet. (10% energy from PUFAs) (2) Coconut-oil diet (20% energy from SFAs). (3) Butter diet (20% energy from SFAs). |
Cholesteryl ester transfer activity (CETA) | Decreased CETA activity in Safflower oil group relative to butter intervention. |
| De Souza, Brazil (2018) [49] |
46 overweight or obese women Age range: 20–59 years |
8-week parallel isocaloric diets: (1) 20 g/day of baru almonds. (2) Control diet with 800 mg maltodextrin supplement. |
Plasma CETP mass | Decrease in baru-almond diet relative to control diet. |
| Gebauer SK, USA (2008) [50] |
28 hypercholesterolemic patients (10 men and 18 women) Mean age ± SD: 48 ± 1.5 years |
4-week crossover intervention with: (1) 10% energy from pistachios. (2) 20% from pistachios. (3) Control low-fat diet. |
Serum CETP mass | No effect. |
| Holligan SD, USA (2014) [42] |
28 participants with high LDL cholesterol (10 men and 18 women) Mean age ± SD: 48.0 ± 1.5 years |
4-week crossover intervention with: (1) 10% energy from pistachios. (2) 20% from pistachios. (3) Control low-fat diet. |
3H CEC in J774 cells in ABDS samples | Increase ABCA1 CEC in 20% pistachio diet, relative to 10% pistachio diet, in participants with low CRP levels. |
| Kawakami Y, Japan (2015) [46] |
26 healthy men Mean age ± SD: 44.5 ± 3.1 years |
12-week crossover diet interventions: (1) 10 g of flaxseed oil (5.49 g of α-linolenic acid). (2) 10 g of corn oil (0.09 g of α-linolenic acid). |
CETP mass | Flaxseed oil decreased CETP mass compared to corn oil. |
| Kralova-Lesna I, Czech Republic (2008) [45] |
14 healthy men Age range: 18–55 years |
4-week crossover intervention with two diets with diets containing 40% from fats: (1) High-SFA diet (52% SFA). (2) High-PUFA diet (41% PUFA). |
14C CEC in THP-1 cells in serum | No effect. |
| Liu X, Canada/USA (2018) [29] |
101 metabolic syndrome participants (50 males and 51 females) Mean age: 49.5 years |
4-week crossover design with 5 isocaloric diets with 60 g of: (1) Canola oil. (2) Canola oil with high oleic-acid content. (3) Canola oil high in DHA and oleic acid. (4) Corn oil combined with safflower oil. (5) Safflower oil combined with flax oil. |
3-NBD CEC in THP-1 in serum samples | Increase of 49.2% in corn oil + safflower oil and 50.7% in safflower oil combined with flax oil, relative to baseline levels. |
| Lottenberg AM, Canada (1996) [52] |
19 hypercholesterolemic women Mean age ± SD: 51.3 ± 12.7 years |
3-week crossover diet: (1) High-SFA diet (45% total fat from SFA oil). (2) High-PUFA diet (50% total fat from PUFA oil). |
Plasma CETP activity and mass | No effect. |
| Pfeuffer M, Germany (2011) [57] |
85 obese men Age range: 45–68 years |
4-week intervention with supplements of: (1) 4.5 g/day conjugated linoleic acid. (2) Safflower oil. (3) Heated safflower oil. (4) Control olive oil. |
Paraoxonase 1 and arylesterase activity | Increase in arylesterase activity in both safflower oil interventions compared to a conjugated linoleic acid group. |
| Sánchez-Muniz FJ, Spain (2012) [54] |
22 participants at high cardiovascular risk (12 men and 10 women) Mean age: 54.8 years |
4 to 6 week crossover intervention with: (1) 750 g/week of walnut-enriched meat (20% walnut paste). (2) Control low-fat diet. |
Paraoxonase 1 activity | Increased PON1 activity in walnut-enriched meat group relative to control diet. |
| Singer P, Germany (1990) [38] |
40 males with mild essential hypertension | Parallel diets with 60 mL/day of: (1) Olive oil. (2) Sunflower oil. (3) Linseed oils. |
LCAT activity | Decrease in LCAT activity relative to baseline intervention. |
| Solà R, Spain (1997) [34] |
22 healthy men Mean age ± SD: 49.7 ± 0.6 years |
8-week crossover intervention with isocaloric diets with 15.6% of: (1) Sunflower oil rich in oleic acid. (2) Sunflower oil rich in linoleic acid. |
3H CEC in primary macrophage cells in isolated HDL3 | No effect. |
| Oxidation status of HDL3 by TBARS assay | Increase in malondialdehyde production in linoleic-rich diet compared to oleic-rich diet. | |||
| Tindall AM, USA (2020) [43] |
34 participants at high cardiovascular risk (21 men and 13 women) Mean age ± SD: 44 ± 10 years |
6-week crossover diet interventions: (1) Walnut diet (57–99 g/day walnut, 16% PUFAs). (2) Walnut fatty-acid–matched diet (linolenic acid matched (16% PUFAs)). (3) High oleic diet (12% MUFAs). |
CEC in J774 cells in ABDS | No effect. |
| Van Tol A, The Netherlands (1995) [48] |
55 healthy participants (25 men and 30 women) Age range:19–49 years |
17-day parallel isocaloric diets with 8% of energy from: (1) Linoleic acid. (2) Stearic acid. (3) Trans fatty acid. |
ABDP CETP activity | Decrease in linoleic-rich diet relative to trans-fatty-acid diet. |
SFA: saturated fatty acids. TFA: trans fatty acids. MUFA: monounsaturated fatty acids. PUFA: polyunsaturated fatty acids. LTP: lipid transfer protein. PON1: paraoxonase-1 activity. DHA: docosahexaenoic acid. EPA: eicosapentaenoic acid. CEC: cholesterol efflux capacity. CETP: cholesteryl ester transfer protein. CETA: cholesteryl ester transfer activity. LCAT: lecithin–cholesterol acyltransferase. PON1: paraoxonase-1. ABDP: apolipoprotein B-depleted plasma. TBARS: thiobarbituric-acid-reactive substance.